Taurine

Taurine (/ˈtɔːriːn/), or 2-aminoethanesulfonic acid, is a non-proteinogenic amino sulfonic acid that is widely distributed in animal tissues. It is a major constituent of bile and can be found in the large intestine, and accounts for up to 0.1% of total human body weight.

Taurine is named after Latin (cognate to Ancient Greek ταῦρος, taûros) meaning bull or ox, as it was first isolated from ox bile in 1827 by German scientists Friedrich Tiedemann and Leopold Gmelin. It was discovered in human bile in 1846 by Edmund Ronalds.

Although taurine is abundant in human organs with diverse putative roles, it is not an essential dietary nutrient and is not included among nutrients with a recommended intake level. Taurine is commonly sold as a dietary supplement, but there is no good clinical evidence that taurine supplements provide any benefit to human health. Taurine is used as a food additive for cats, dogs, and poultry.

Taurine concentrations in land plants are low or undetectable, but up to 1,000 nmol/g wet weight have been found in algae.

Chemical and biochemical features

Taurine exists as a zwitterion Template:Chem2, as verified by X-ray crystallography. The sulfonic acid has a low pK_a ensuring that it is fully ionized to the sulfonate at the pHs found in the intestinal tract.

Synthesis

Synthetic taurine is obtained by the ammonolysis of isethionic acid (2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid), which in turn is obtained from the reaction of ethylene oxide with aqueous sodium bisulfite. A direct approach involves the reaction of aziridine with sulfurous acid.

In 1993, about 5,000–6,000 tonnes of taurine were produced for commercial purposes: 50% for pet food and 50% in pharmaceutical applications. As of 2010, China alone has more than 40 manufacturers of taurine. Most of these enterprises employ the ethanolamine method to produce a total annual production of about 3,000 tonnes.

In the laboratory, taurine can be produced by alkylation of ammonia with bromoethanesulfonate salts.

Biosynthesis

Taurine is naturally derived from cysteine. Mammalian taurine synthesis occurs in the pancreas via the cysteine sulfinic acid pathway. In this pathway, cysteine is first oxidized to its sulfinic acid, catalyzed by the enzyme cysteine dioxygenase. Cysteine sulfinic acid, in turn, is decarboxylated by sulfinoalanine decarboxylase to form hypotaurine. Hypotaurine is enzymatically oxidized to yield taurine by hypotaurine dehydrogenase.

Taurine is also produced by the transsulfuration pathway, which converts homocysteine into cystathionine. The cystathionine is then converted to hypotaurine by the sequential action of three enzymes: cystathionine gamma-lyase, cysteine dioxygenase, and cysteine sulfinic acid decarboxylase. Hypotaurine is then oxidized to taurine as described above.

A pathway for taurine biosynthesis from serine and sulfate is reported in microalgae, developing chicken embryos, and chick liver. Serine dehydratase converts serine to 2-aminoacrylate, which is converted to cysteic acid by 3′-phosphoadenylyl sulfate:2-aminoacrylate C-sulfotransferase. Cysteic acid is converted to taurine by cysteine sulfinic acid decarboxylase.

File:Degradation of Cysteine to Taurine.svg

Oxidative degradation of cysteine to taurine

In food

Taurine occurs naturally in fish and meat. The mean daily intake from omnivore diets was determined to be around 58 mg (range from 9–372 mg), and to be low or negligible from a vegan diet. Typical taurine consumption in the American diet is about 123–178 mg per day.

The availability of taurine is affected depending on how the food is prepared, raw diets retaining the most taurine, and baking or boiling resulting in the greatest taurine loss.

Breast milk

Prematurely born infants are believed to lack the enzymes needed to convert cystathionine to cysteine, and may, therefore, become deficient in taurine. Taurine is present in breast milk, and has been added to many infant formulas, as a measure of prudence, since the early 1980s. However, this practice has never been rigorously studied, and as such it has yet to be proven to be necessary, or even beneficial.

Energy drinks and dietary supplements

Taurine is an ingredient in some energy drinks in amounts of 1–3 grams per serving. A 1999 assessment of European consumption of energy drinks found that taurine intake was 40-400 mg per day.

Animal food additive

Cats lack the enzymatic machinery (sulfinoalanine decarboxylase) to produce taurine and must therefore acquire it from their diet. A taurine deficiency in cats can lead to retinal degeneration and eventually blindness – a condition known as central retinal degeneration (CRD), as well as hair loss and tooth decay. Other effects of a diet lacking in this essential amino acid are dilated cardiomyopathy and reproductive failure in female cats. Decreased plasma taurine concentration has been demonstrated to be associated with feline dilated cardiomyopathy. Unlike CRD, the condition is reversible with supplementation. Taurine is now a requirement of the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) and any dry or wet food product labeled approved by the AAFCO should have a minimum of 0.1% taurine in dry food and 0.2% in wet food. Studies suggest the amino acid should be supplied at 10 mg/kg of bodyweight/day for domestic cats.

Taurine appears essential to the development of passerine birds. Many passerines seek out taurine-rich spiders to feed their young, particularly just after hatching. Researchers compared the behaviours and development of birds fed a taurine-supplemented diet to a control diet and found the juveniles fed taurine-rich diets as neonates were much larger risk takers and more adept at spatial learning tasks.

Research

High-quality clinical studies to determine possible effects of taurine in the body or following dietary supplementation are absent from the literature. Preliminary human studies on the possible effects of taurine supplementation have been inadequate due to low subject numbers, inconsistent designs, and variable doses.

Taurine is not regarded as an essential dietary nutrient and has not been assigned recommended intake levels.

In 1992, taurine was proposed to have a role in cardiovascular function and development and function of skeletal muscle, the retina, and the central nervous system.

Safety and toxicity

According to the European Food Safety Authority, taurine is "considered to be a skin and eye irritant and skin sensitiser, and to be hazardous if inhaled;" it may be safe to consume up to 6 grams of taurine per day. Other sources indicate that taurine is safe for supplemental intake in normal healthy adults at up to 3 grams per day.

A 2008 review found no documented reports of negative or positive health effects associated with the amount of taurine used in energy drinks, concluding, "The amounts of guarana, taurine, and ginseng found in popular energy drinks are far below the amounts expected to deliver either therapeutic benefits or adverse events".

Derivatives

• Taurine is used in the preparation of the anthelmintic drug netobimin (Totabin).
• Taurolidine
• Taurocholic acid and tauroselcholic acid
• Tauromustine
• 5-Taurinomethyluridine and 5-taurinomethyl-2-thiouridine are modified uridines in (human) mitochondrial tRNA.
• Tauryl is the functional group attaching at the sulfur, 2-aminoethylsulfonyl.
• Taurino is the functional group attaching at the nitrogen, 2-sulfoethylamino.

See also

• Homotaurine (tramiprosate), precursor to acamprosate
• Taurates, a substance group

References

https://hiddencomplexity.substack.com/p/sequential-infection-inflammaging ^[archive]

https://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2024/04/01/taurine-for-longevity-and-healthier-lifespan.aspx ^[archive]