Scientific evidence

Nyaya Shastra's five steps to establish a thesis are: pratijna (hypothesis), hetu (causal element), udaharana (data or example in support), upanaya (verification or experiment), nigamana (conclusion). The Mimamsakara 's principles for framing a problem are: upakrama (introduction), upasamhara (hypothesis), abhyasa (general outline of the hypothesis), apurvata (indication of originality), phala (purpose behind this framing), arthavada (argument in support of the solution or refutation of opponent), and upapatti (establishing the conclusion). The tantrayuktis are enumerated in various texts such as Arthashastra of Kautilya (third century bce), Sushrutasamhita of Sushruta (fifth century bce), Charakasamhita of Charaka (second century bce), Ashtangahridaya of Vagbhatta (third century ce) and Vishnudharmottara purana (fourth or fifth century ce). In addition to these ancient texts, there is another, titled Tantrayuktivicara , which exclusively deals with thirty-six devices for presenting scientific texts. A work called Anvikshiki has been attributed to Medhatithi Gautama and was preserved in Charaka schools. It deals with three themes, one of which is sambhasha or vadavidhi (methods of debate). One such system included: pratijna (issue or proposition to be debated), sthapana (the case including reason, example, application and conclusion), pratisthapana (a counter-propositions or 'holes' in the case), hetu (sources of knowledge), upanaya (application); nigamana (conclusion), uttara (rejoinder), siddhanta (tenet established after examination by experts), and samshaya (doubts and uncertainty).