Islam and Sikhism

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Islam
and other religions
تخطيط كلمة الإسلام
Abrahamic religions
Other religions
Islam and...

Islam is an Abrahamic religion founded in the Arabian peninsula, while Sikhism is a Dharmic religion founded in the Indian subcontinent. Islam means "submission" (to Allah).[1][2] The word Sikh is derived from a Sanskrit word meaning 'disciple', or one who learns.[3]

Both religions are strictly monotheistic, although, unlike the monotheism of Islam, Sikhs believe that the 'One' creator permeates the creation.[4][5] Islam believes that Muhammad was the last prophet, to whom Quran was revealed by God in 7th century CE, and it restricts its primary source of teachings to the Quran and the Hadiths.[6] Sikhism was founded in 15th century CE by Guru Nanak and Guru Granth Sahib is the scripture followed by Sikhs as "The Living Guru".[4][7]

In Islam, the legal system based on the Quran and the Sunnah is known as Sharia; there is no such legal system mentioned in Guru Granth Sahib. Islam does not allow apostasy.[8] Sikhism allows freedom of conscience and apostasy.[9] Daily prayers are one of the pillars of Islam and mandatory for Muslims.[10] Baptized Sikhs read the five banis (prayers) as part of their daily routine, Nitnem. Islam requires annual zakah (alms giving) by Muslims, while Sikhism encourages alms giving but does not compel it.[11] Kirat Karna (doing an honest livelihood - earning honestly without any sort of corruption), Naam Japna (to praise, read and follow "The One") and Vand Chhako (Selfless service (Sewa) and sharing with others) are fundamental to Sikhism given by Guru Nanak Dev Ji. Pilgrimage (to Mecca) is a crucial part of Islam, while Sikhism denounces pilgrimages, circumcision and rituals.[12]

Examples of wikipedia censorship

Comparison

Belief

God

Sikhism believes that God is formless (nirankar).[4][13] It has been called a form of pantheism,[5] as well as monotheism.[4]

Islam believes in one God with Muhammad as his messenger. It denies other gods, and is strictly monotheistic (tawḥīd).[14][15] This Islamic doctrine is a part of its Shahada.[15]

Guru and Messengers

Sikhism reveres the ten human Gurus of Sikhs, but accepts that there were many divine messengers, including Krishna, Moses, Jesus and Mohammed in other religions.[4]

Islam believes that before Muhammad there were many messengers of God, Muhammad was the last messenger, and Quran was the last revelation to the last prophet.[6][16]

Duties/Articles of Faith

The Five Pillars of Islam are duties incumbent on every Muslim. These duties are Shahada (testimony that "There is no god but God and Muhammad is the messenger of God"),[8] Salat (prayers), Zakat (Giving of Alms), Sawm (Fasting during Ramadan) and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). These five practices are essential to Sunni Islam; Shi'a Muslims subscribe to eight ritual practices which substantially overlap with the five Pillars.[17][18]

The three duties of Sikhs are Naam Japna (meditating on Waheguru's name), Kirat Karni (earn honest living) and Vand Chakna (sharing one's earning with others).[19]

Social beliefs

Sikhism has an ambivalent attitude towards miracles and rejects any form of discrimination within and against other religions.[20][20] Sikhism does not believe in rituals, but is permissive of traditions.[7]

Sikhism rejects asceticism and celibacy.[21] Sikh Guru Nanak accepted reincarnation.[21] Adi Granth of Sikhism recognizes and includes spiritual wisdom from other religions.[7][22][page needed] Islam warns against wrongful innovation (bid‘ah) to what is revealed in the Quran and the Hadiths.[7]

Islam considers itself to be a perfect and final religion.[22] It warns against innovation (bid‘ah) to what is revealed in the Quran and the Hadiths.[7] It considers other religions and non-believers in Islam as wrongly guided and infidels.[22][23] Islam does not recognize and accept spiritual wisdom from other religions.[7][23][24]

Islam also rejects asceticism and celibacy.[25] Islam believes in miracles and a final judgment day (Qiyama).[26] Islam believes that there is severe punishments in the afterlife (akhirah) for those who do not submit to Islam, who refuse or reject Islamic teachings, calling them kafir and infidels.[26][27][28] Sikhism does not preach or accept this view of those who are not Sikhs.

Apostasy

Apostasy, that is abandonment of Islam by a Muslim and conversion to another religion or atheism, is a religious crime in Islam punishable with death.[8][29] According to the Hadiths, states John Esposito, leaving Islam is punishable by "beheading, crucifixion or banishment", and Sharia (Islamic legal code) traditionally has required death by the sword for an adult sane male who voluntarily leaves Islam.[8] However, adds Esposito, modern thinkers have argued against execution as penalty for apostasy from Islam by invoking Quranic verse 2:257.[8]

Sikhism allows freedom of conscience and apostasy.[9]

View on other religions

Sikhism teaches that all religious traditions are valid, leading to the same Waheguru, and it rejects that any particular religion has a monopoly regarding absolute truth for all of humanity.[30]

Islam teaches that non-Islamic religious traditions have been distorted by man to suit their desires.[31][32]

Predestination

Islam believes in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa l-qadar), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs.[33][34] According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the "Preserved Tablet".[35][full citation needed]

Sikhism also believes in predestination, and what one does, speaks and hears is already pre ordained, and one has to simply follow the laid down path per God's fiat or Hukum.[36]

Practice

Grooming and dress

The Khalsa panth among Sikhs are guided by the five Ks. They keep their head hair long (kesh) and both men and women wear turbans (head hair cover). They carry a wooden comb, wear an iron bracelet, wear a cotton underwear, and carry a kirpan (steel sword).[37] Non baptized Sikh women are free to dress as they wish in Sikhism. Sex segregation is not required in public places or Sikh temples by Sikhism.[38]

Muslim males are encouraged to grow their beards and trim the moustache.[39] Men in some Muslim communities wear turban (head cap).[40] Muslim men, as well as women, must dress modestly. For Muslim women, it is highly recommended to cover their hair. Muslim women are required to cover body in public,[41] with some Islamic scholars stating that the Islamic Hadiths require covering the face too.[42][43] These restrictions are called 'Hijab'. Islam encourages gender segregation in public, and Muslim men and women do not usually mix in public places such as mosques. These restrictions are part of 'Adab'.[39]

Circumcision

Further information: Khitan (circumcision) and Religious views on female genital mutilation

Sikhism does not require circumcision of either males or females, and criticizes the practice.[44]

In Islam, no verse in the Quran supports male or female circumcision (FGM/C).[45] Male circumcision is a widespread practice and considered mandatory for Muslim males according to Sunnah.[46] Muslim scholars disagree whether any authentic Sunnah in the hadiths supports the practice of female circumcision.[47][48][49] The Ijma, or consensus of Muslim scholars, varies by the Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) on whether circumcision is optional, honorable or obligatory for Muslim male and females.[note 1] Prominent Islamic scholars have both supported and opposed FGM/C for female Muslims.[50][51][note 1][note 2]

Food

Islam has Quranic restrictions on food, such as how the meat is prepared.[55] Halal meat is required in Islam, prepared by ritual slaughter that involves cutting the jugular veins of the animal with a sharp knife. This leads to death, through bleeding, of the animal.[56] Meat from animals that die of natural causes or accident is not allowed, unless necessary.[55] Beef is a sought after meat among Muslims, but they strictly avoid pork and alcohol.[57] Muslims fast for the month of Ramadan.

Sikhs are prohibited from eating Islamic halal or Jewish kosher style meat because to them, this manner of obtaining meat involves a ritualistic component and a slow death of the animal. This is known as Kutha meat.[58][59] The official Sikh Code of Conduct Sikh Rehat Maryada only forbids the consumption of Kutha meat and instead suggests Jhatka style of preparation.[59] Charity meals distributed at a Sikh Gurudwara, called a langar, is only lacto-vegetarian.[58][60] Some sects[61] of Sikhism disagree with the consumption of meat altogether.[62] In practice, most Sikhs avoid beef due to cultural reasons in India, and some Sikhs are strict lacto-vegetarians.[59]

Jizya

Muslim rulers in history, compelled the payment of a special tax called Jizya from dhimmi, those who refuse to convert to Islam but live in a Muslim state. Dhimmis were excluded from having to pay Islamic religious tax such as zakat and excluded from observing other Islamic religious obligations.[63][64] Jizya was a tool of social stratification and treasury's revenue from non-Muslims.[64] Jizya was a reminder of subordination of a non-Muslim under some Muslim rulers, and created a financial and political incentive to convert to Islam.[64][65]

Sikhism has never required a special tax for non-Sikhs.

Holy sites

File:Golden temple pano.jpg
The Harmandir Sahib (also known as the Golden Temple).

The Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib) in Amritsar, India is not only a central religious place of the Sikhs, but also a symbol of human brotherhood and equality. The four entrances of this holy shrine from all four directions, signify that people belonging to every walk of life are equally welcome. The Golden Temple is a holy site for Sikhs and is welcome to people of any faith.[66]

File:Masjid al-Haram panorama.JPG
Masjid al-Haram Mecca.

Mecca in Saudi Arabia is the central religious place in Islam.[67][68] Mecca is regarded as the holiest city in Islam,[69] and a pilgrimage to it, known as the Hajj, is one of the pillars of Islam. Non-Muslims are prohibited from entering the city. Although in history, they've sometimes allowed non-Muslims to visit.[citation needed]

Pilgrimage

Sikhs do not believe in pilgrimages; Muslims, in contrast, consider Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) a crucial part of the faith.

History

During the Mughal Empire, Sikh gurus were persecuted along with other non-Muslims. The fifth Guru of Sikhs, Guru Arjan was executed by Jahangir.[70] There were occasional exceptions to the historical persecution. During Mughal Emperor Akbar's rule, for example, Sikhism and diverse religions were temporarily accepted. Akbar visited the third Sikh Guru, Guru Amardas at Goindwal, ate at the Langar kitchen, and offered donations for Langar.[71][72]

In other periods, Sikhs were persecuted during the Islamic rule of South Asia. Guru Arjan was tortured and executed by Mughal emperor Jahangir. Guru Hargobind, (sixth Guru of the Sikhs), after the martyrdom of Guru Arjan saw that it would no longer be possible to protect the Sikh community without the aid of arms.[73] He built Akal Takhat the Throne of the Immortal and it is the highest political institution of the Sikhs and he also wore two swords of Miri and Piri [archive].[74]

Guru Tegh Bahadur (ninth Guru) was tortured and beheaded by Aurangzeb at Chandni Chowk in Delhi,[75] for refusing to convert to Islam and for protecting Kashmiri Hindus who were being forced to convert to Islam.[76][77][78] His fellow devotees Bhai Mati Das, Bhai Sati Das and Bhai Dayala were also tortured and executed, while Guru Tegh Bahadur was forced to watch.[79][80] Tenth Guru Guru Gobind Singh formed Khalsa known as Army of Akal Purakh (Immortal) and Gave 5 Ks to Khalsa. Two of the younger sons of Guru Gobind Singh aged 9 and 7 were bricked up alive by the Muslim governor Wazir Khan in Sarhand (Punjab). When Guru Gobind Singh was in South India, he sent Banda Singh Bahadur to chastise the repressive Mughal faiy`dar of Sirhind. Banda Singh captured Sirhind and laid the foundation of Sikh empire.[81][82] According to a popular myth, the Nawab of Malerkotla Sher Mohammad Khan, protested against the execution of Sahibzadas, after which Guru Gobind Singh blessed the state. This is considered as a reason by many historians due to which Malerkotla was the only city not harmed by Banda Singh Bahadur during his military campaign.[83][84]

The Muslims under Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire were mostly treated favorably and comprised the majority of the population of the empire. Ranjit Singh declared during his coronation that Muslims would be governed under Islamic law and appointed many of them in important official positions. The Muslim religious leadership and mosques continuously received state support under Sikh rule.[85][86] This was in contrast with the Muslims of Kashmir valley where Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive,[87] protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh Empire in Lahore.[88] The region had passed from the control of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan, and four centuries of Muslim rule under the Mughals and the Afghans, to the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh in 1819.[89] As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers,[90] however this perception later changed.[87] The Sikh rulers of Kashmir enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws,[88] which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter,[90] closing down the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar, and banning the azaan, the public Muslim call to prayer.[88] Several European visitors who visited Kashmir during Sikh rule wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikh rulers. High taxes, according to some contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the countryside.[90] However, after a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax.[88]

Recent relations

During the partition of India in 1947, there was much bloodshed between Sikhs and Muslims, there was mass migration of people from all walks of life to leave their homes and belongings and travel by foot across the new border, on trains and on land people were killed in what was felt to be revenge attacks.[91] Millions of Sikhs left Pakistan and moved into India, while millions of Muslims left India and moved into Pakistan.[91] Malerkotla was however not affected and was viewed as a safe haven for Muslims during the partition. The popular myth associated with it is that the town was not impacted because of Guru Gobind Singh blessing it after its Nawab protested against the execution of the Guru's sons.[84]

Since 9/11 Sikhs in America have been endured hate crimes, denial of employment, bullying in schools and profiling in airports.[92]

In the UK, there have some instances of tension between Sikhs and Muslims on allegations that some Sikhs have been forced to convert to Islam.[93][94]

In 2009, the Taliban in Pakistan demanded that Sikhs in the region pay them the jizya (poll tax levied by Muslims on non-Muslim minorities).[95]

In 2010 the Taliban, an Islamic terrorist group, attacked many minorities including Sikhs resulting in two beheadings.[96]

In April 2016, two Muslim teens bombed a gurdwara in the German city of Essen. The two teen converted fire extinguishers into an explosive device. The devices detonated after a wedding party had left for the reception. A gurdwara priest was injured seriously, while two others were treated for minor injuries. The gurdwara building was damaged severely. One of the teens was in deradicalization program. The two denied it was religiously motivated saying “just for the kick of building fireworks!” However, before setting off the blast, the two 16-year-olds tried to break into the Sikh place of worship, North Rhine Westphalia (NRW).[97]

Sufi Muslims and Sikhs

Sufi Muslims, a minority group of mystical ascetics in Islam, considered to be one of its many sects,[98][99] have been long considered to be heretics and blasphemous in Wahabi and Salafi Islam.[100][101][102] The Sikh Gurus had cordial relations with many Muslim Sufi Saints.[103]

In December 1588, a Sufi saint of Lahore, Mian Mir, visited Guru Arjan Dev at the initiation ceremony before the construction of the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple).[104]

Ahmadiyya Muslims and Sikhs

Ahmadiyya, a minority reform sect that arose within Islam, believe in prophets after Muhammad and consider themselves to be Muslims.[105] They are, however, not recognized as Muslims by mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam, and are treated as blasphemous and persecuted.[105][106] Since the 18th century, Sufis and ancestors of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad – the founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement – had cordial relations with Sikhs, and they fought with Sikhs to resist the persecution by Sunni-based Mughal rule in northwest region of South Asia.[107] However, as Ranjit Singh established the Sikh Empire, there were conflicts between the Sikhs and the Jagir of Ahmad's father.[107]


Select Writings, Political Protest by Guru Nanak Dev

(Rag Asa, pg. 360) Having attacked Khuraasaan, Babar terrified Hindustan. The Creator Himself does not take the blame, but has sent the Mugal as the messenger of death. There was so much slaughter that the people screamed. Didn't You feel compassion, Lord? || 1 || O Creator Lord, You are the Master of all. If some powerful man strikes out against another man, then no one feels any grief in their mind. || 1 || Pause || But if a powerful tiger attacks a flock of sheep and kills them, then its master must answer for it. This priceless country has been laid waste and defiled by dogs, and no one pays any attention to the dead. You Yourself unite, and You Yourself separate; I gaze upon Your Glorious Greatness. || 2 || One may give himself a great name, and revel in the pleasures of the mind, but in the Eyes of the Lord and Master, he is just a worm, for all the corn that he eats. Only one who dies to his ego while yet alive, obtains the blessings, O Nanak, by chanting the Lord's Name.

(Rag Asa, pg. 417-418) Those heads adorned with braided hair, with their parts painted with vermillion - those heads were shaved with scissors, and their throats were choked with dust. They lived in palatial mansions, but now, they cannot even sit near the palaces. || 1 || Hail to You, O Father Lord, Hail to You! O Primal Lord. Your limits are not known; You create, and create, and behold the scenes. || 1 || Pause || When they were married, their husbands looked so handsome beside them. They came in palanquins, decorated with ivory; water was sprinkled over their heads, and glittering fans were waved above them. || 2 || They were given hundreds of thousands of coins when they sat, and hundreds of thousands of coins when they stood. They ate coconuts and dates, and rested comfortably upon their beds. But ropes were put around their necks, and their strings of pearls were broken. || 3 || Their wealth and youthful beauty, which gave them so much pleasure, have now become their enemies. The order was given to the soldiers, who dishonored them, and carried them away. If it is pleasing to God's Will, He bestows greatness; if is pleases His Will, He bestows punishment. || 4 || If someone focuses on the Lord beforehand, then why should he be punished? The kings had lost their higher consciousness, reveling in pleasure and sensuality. Since Babar's rule has been proclaimed, even the princes have no food to eat. || 5 || The Muslims have lost their five times of daily prayer, and the Hindus have lost their worship as well. Without their sacred squares, how shall the Hindu women bathe and apply the frontal marks to their foreheads? They never remembered their Lord as Raam, and now they cannot even chant Khudaa-i || 6 || Some have returned to their homes, and meeting their relatives, they ask about their safety. For some, it is pre-ordained that they shall sit and cry out in pain. Whatever pleases Him, comes to pass. O Nanak, what is the fate of mankind? || 7 || 11 || AASAA, FIRST MEHL: Where are the games, the stables, the horses? Where are the drums and the bugles? Where are the sword-belts and chariots? Where are those scarlet uniforms? Where are the rings and the beautiful faces? They are no longer to be seen here. || 1 || This world is Yours; You are the Lord of the Universe. In an instant, You establish and disestablish. You distribute wealth as it pleases You. || 1 || Pause || Where are the houses, the gates, the hotels and palaces? Where are those beautiful way-stations? Where are those beautiful women, reclining on their beds, whose beauty would not allow one to sleep?Where are those betel leaves, their sellers, and the haremees? They have vanished like shadows. || 2 || For the sake of this wealth, so many were ruined; because of this wealth, so many have been disgraced. It was not gathered without sin, and it does not go along with the dead. Those, whom the Creator Lord would destroy - first He strips them of virtue. || 3 || Millions of religious leaders failed to halt the invader, when they heard of the Emperor's invasion. He burned the rest-houses and the ancient temples; he cut the princes limb from limb, and cast them into the dust. None of the Mugals went blind, and no one performed any miracle. || 4 || The battle raged between the Mugals and the Pat'haans, and the swords clashed on the battlefield. They took aim and fired their guns, and they attacked with their elephants. Those men whose letters were torn in the Lord's Court, were destined to die, O Siblings of Destiny. || 5 || The Hindu women, the Muslim women, the Bhattis and the Rajputs - some had their robes torn away, from head to foot, while others came to dwell in the cremation ground. Their husbands did not return home - how did they pass their night? || 6 || The Creator Himself acts, and causes others to act. Unto whom should we complain? Pleasure and pain come by Your Will; unto whom should we go and cry? The Commander issues His Command, and is pleased. O Nanak, we receive what is written in our destiny.

(Rag Tilang, pg. 722-723) As the Word of the Forgiving Lord comes to me, so do I express it, O Lalo. Bringing the marriage party of sin, Babar has invaded from Kaabul, demanding our land as his wedding gift, O Lalo. Modesty and righteousness both have vanished, and falsehood struts around like a leader, O Lalo. The Qazis and the Brahmins have lost their roles, and Satan now conducts the marriage rites, O Lalo. The Muslim women read the Koran, and in their misery, they call upon God, O Lalo. The Hindu women of high social status, and others of lowly status as well, are put into the same category, O Lalo. The wedding songs of murder are sung, O Nanak, and blood is sprinkled instead of saffron, O Lalo. || 1 || Nanak sings the Glorious Praises of the Lord and Master in the city of corpses, and voices this account. The One who created, and attached the mortals to pleasures, sits alone, and watches this. The Lord and Master is True, and True is His justice. He issues His Commands according to His judgement. The body-fabric will be torn apart into shreds, and then India will remember these words. Coming in seventy-eight (1521 A.D.), they will depart in ninety-seven (1540 A.D.), and then another disciple of man will rise up. Nanak speaks the Word of Truth; he proclaims the Truth at this, the right time.

(Rag Malar, pg.1288) Deer, falcons and government officials are known to be trained and clever. When the trap is set, they trap their own kind; hereafter they will find no place of rest. He alone is learned and wise, and he alone is a scholar, who practices the Name. First, the tree puts down its roots, and then it spreads out its shade above. The kings are tigers, and their officials are dogs; they go out and awaken the sleeping people to harass them. The public servants inflict wounds with their nails. The dogs lick up the blood that is spilled. But there, in the Court of the Lord, all beings will be judged. Those who have violated the people's trust will be disgraced; their noses will be cut off.

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 According to Islamic scholars Ibrahim Lethome Asmani and Maryam Sheikh Abdi, "Examination of all the texts on Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) shows that scholars have no consensus on FGM/C. For example the four schools of thought express the following views: The Hanafi view is that it is a sunnah (optional act) for both females and males; Maliki hold the view that it is wajib (obligatory) for males and sunnah (optional) for females; Shafi’i view it as wajib (obligatory) for both females and males; Hanbali have two opinions: it is wajib (obligatory) for both males and females, and it is wajib (obligatory) for males and makrumah (honourable) for females.[52]
  2. ↑ According to 2016 estimates of UNICEF, at least 200 million girls and women alive today worldwide have undergone female genital mutilation/cutting.[53] The 2013 report by the UNICEF states, "in many countries, FGM/C prevalence is highest among Muslim girls and women. The practice, however, is also found among Catholic and other Christian communities."[54]

References

  1. ↑ "Online Etymology Dictionary" [archive]. www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 2015-06-04.
  2. ↑ Lewis, Barnard; Churchill, Buntzie Ellis (2009). Islam: The Religion and The People. Wharton. p. 8. ISBN 9780132230858.
  3. ↑ "Online Etymology Dictionary" [archive]. www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 2015-05-25.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Johal, Jagbir (2011). Sikhism today. Continuum. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-1-4411-8140-4.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Sikhism in Its Relation to Muhammadanism [archive], p. 12, at Google Books
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Gülen, Fethullah (2005). The Messenger of God Muhammad : an analysis of the Prophet's life. p. 204. ISBN 978-1-932099-83-6.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 Singh, Gurapreet (2003). The soul of Sikhism. p. 18. ISBN 978-81-288-0085-6.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-19-512559-7.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Pal Kaur, Apostasy: A sociological perspective, Sikh Review, 45(1), 1997, pp. 37-40
  10. ↑ Fisher, Mary (1997). Living religions : an encyclopedia of the world's faiths. p. 353. ISBN 978-1-86064-148-0.
  11. ↑ Rai, Priya (1989). Sikhism and the Sikhs. Greenwood Press. pp. 230–233. ISBN 978-0-313-26130-5.
  12. ↑ D.S Chahal (Editors: John Peppin etc.) (2004). Religious perspectives in bioethics. London u.a: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-54413-9. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  13. ↑ Eleanor Nesbitt (2016). Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction [archive]. Oxford University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-19-106276-6.
  14. ↑ "From the article on Tawhid in Oxford Islamic Studies Online" [archive]. Oxfordislamicstudies.com. 2008-05-06. Retrieved 2014-08-24.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Malise Ruthven (2004). Historical Atlas of Islam [archive]. Harvard University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-674-01385-8.
  16. ↑ Scott Noegel; Brannon M. Wheeler (2002). Historical dictionary of prophets in Islam and Judaism. Scarecrow. pp. 227–229. ISBN 978-0-8108-4305-9.
  17. ↑ See: * Mumen (1987), p.178, "Pillars of Islam" [archive]. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
  18. ↑ Knight, Ian; Scollins (23 March 1990). Richard (ed.). Queen Victoria's Enemies: India No.3 [archive]. Men-at-arms (Paperback ed.). Osprey Publishing; illustrated edition. p. 15. ISBN 0-85045-943-5. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
  19. ↑ "Religion: Sikhism" [archive]. BBC. 1970-01-01. Retrieved 2015-06-04.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Baksh, Kaiyume (1 January 2007). "Islam and Other Major World Religions" [archive]. Trafford Publishing – via Google Books.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Carmody, Denise (2013). Ways to the center : an introduction to world religions. p. 339. ISBN 978-1-133-94225-2.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Juergensmeyer, Mark (2006). The Oxford handbook of global religions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-976764-9.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Aziz Esmail; Abdou Filali-Ansary (2012). The construction of belief. London: The Aga Khan University, Institute for the Study of Muslim Civilisations. pp. 65–66. ISBN 978-0-86356-424-6.
  24. ↑ Sirriyeh, Elizabeth (1989). "Wahhabis, unbelievers and the problems of exclusivism". British Society for Middle Eastern Studies. 16 (2): 123–132.
  25. ↑ "Islamic Marriage" [archive]. Al-Islam.org. Retrieved 2015-05-24.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Esposito, John (2004). The Islamic world : past and present. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 121–122. ISBN 0-19-516520-9.
  27. ↑ Campo, Juan (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. New York: Facts On File. pp. 421–422. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
  28. ↑ Marilyn Robinson Waldman, The Development of the Concept of Kufr in the Quran, Vol. 88, No. 3 (Jul. - Sep., 1968), pp. 442-455
  29. ↑ Ali, Kecia (2008). Islam : the key concepts. Routledge. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-0-415-39638-7.
  30. ↑ Haar, Kristen (2005). Sikhism. San Val. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-1417638536.
  31. ↑ Rippin, Andrew (2010). The Islamic world. London: Routledge. pp. 252–258. ISBN 978-0-415-60191-7.
  32. ↑ Sirry, Munim (2014). Scriptural polemics : the Qur'an and other religions. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 43–64. ISBN 978-0-19-935936-3.
  33. ↑ See:
    • Quran 9:51 [archive]
    • D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us…" ' "
    • Ahmet T. Karamustafa. "Fate". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.: The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".
  34. ↑ A Dictionary of Islam [archive]: By Thomas Patrick Hughes ISBN 81-206-0672-8 Page 591
  35. ↑ Farah (2003), pp.119–122; Patton (1900), p.130; Momen (1987), pp.177,178
  36. ↑ Singh, Gurapreet (2003). The soul of Sikhism. pp. 127–128. ISBN 978-81-288-0085-6.
  37. ↑ "Religion: Sikhism" [archive]. BBC. 1970-01-01. Retrieved 2015-06-04.
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  45. ↑ To Mutilate in the Name of Jehovah or Allah: Legitimization of Male and Female Circumcision [archive] Sami A. ALDEEB ABU-SAHLIEH, Medicine and Law, Volume 13, Number 7-8: July 1994, pp. 575-622, Chapter 2, Quote: "The Koran mentions neither male nor female circumcision."
  46. ↑ Erich Kolig (2012). Conservative Islam: A Cultural Anthropology [archive]. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-7391-7424-1., Quote: "Islam makes male circumcision mandatory, which is usually done at a relatively early age. It is not commanded by the Quran, but contained in the Sunna."
  47. ↑ Ibrahim Lethome Asmani and Maryam Sheikh Abdi (2008), De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam [archive], Population Council, Washington DC, pages 6, 12
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  50. ↑ CM Obermeyer, "Female Genital Surgeries: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable", Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 13(1), March 1999, pp. 79–106
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  53. ↑ At least 200 million girls and women alive today living in 30 countries have undergone FGM/C [archive], UNICEF (2016)
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  106. ↑ Gualtieri, Antonio (2004). The Ahmadis community, gender, and politics in a Muslim society. Montreal, Que: McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-7735-2738-6.
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