Indraprastha

From Dharmapedia Wiki
Jump to navigation Jump to search
"Indraprastham" redirects here. For the film, see Indraprastham (film).

Indraprastha (lit. "Plain of Indra"[1] or "City of Indra") is mentioned in ancient Indian literature as a city of the Kuru Kingdom. It was the capital of the kingdom led by the Pandavas mentioned in Mahabharata . Under the Pali form of its name, Indapatta, it is also mentioned in Buddhist texts as the capital of the Kuru mahajanapada. Modern historical research pin its location in the region of present-day New Delhi, particularly the Old Fort (Purana Qila).[2] The city is sometimes also known as Khandavaprastha or Khandava Forest, the name of a forest region on the banks of Yamuna river which (according to the Mahabharata) had been cleared by Krishna and Arjun to build the city.

History

Indraprastha is referenced in the Mahabharata, a Sanskrit Indian text compiled over a period approximately between 400 BCE and 400 CE. It was one of the five places demanded for the sake of peace and to avert a disastrous war, Krishna proposed that if Hastinapur agreed to give the Pandavas only five villages, namely, Indraprastha (Delhi), Swarnprastha (Sonipat), Panprastha (Panipat), Vyaghrprastha (Baghpat) and Tilprastha (Tilpat)[3][4] then they would be satisfied and would make no more demands. Duryodhana vehemently refused, commenting that he would not part with land even as much as the point of a needle. Thus, the stage was set for the great war for which the epic of Mahabharata is known most of all. The Mahabharata records Indraprastha as being home to the Pandavas, whose wars with the Kauravas it describes.

File:Maurya Empire, c.250 BCE.png
Indraprastha within the Maurya Empire

During the Mauryan period, Indraprastha was known as Indapatta in Buddhist literature. The location of Indraprastha is uncertain but Purana Qila in present day New Delhi is frequently cited.[lower-alpha 1][5] and has been noted as such in texts as old as the 14th-century CE.[6] The modern form of the name, Inderpat, continued to be applied to the Purana Qila area into the early 20th century;[7] in a study of ancient Indian place-names, Michael Witzel considers this to be one of many places from the Sanskrit Epics whose names have been retained into modern times, such as Kaushambi/Kosam.[8]

Location

Purana Qila is certainly an ancient settlement but archaeological studies performed there since the 1950s[lower-alpha 2][lower-alpha 3] have failed to reveal structures and artefacts that would confirm the architectural grandeur and rich lives in the period that the Mahabharata describes. The historian Upinder Singh notes that despite the academic debate, "Ultimately, there is no way of conclusively proving or disproving whether the Pandavas or Kauravas ever lived ...".[6] However, it is possible that the main part of the ancient city has not been reached by excavations so far, but rather falls under the unexcavated area extending directly to the south of Purana Qila.[lower-alpha 4] Overall, Delhi has been the center of the area where the ancient city has historically been estimated to be. Until 1913, a village called Indrapat existed within the fort walls.[11] As of 2014, the Archaeological Survey of India is continuing excavation in Purana Qila.[12]

Historical Significance

Indraprastha is not only known from the Mahabharata. It is also mentioned as "Indapatta" or "Indapattana" in Pali-language Buddhist texts, where it is described as the capital of the Kuru Kingdom,[13] situated on the Yamuna River.[14] The Buddhist literature also mentions Hatthinipura (Hastinapura) and several smaller towns and villages of the Kuru kingdom.[13] Indraprastha may have been known to the Greco-Roman world as well: it is thought to be mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography dating from the 2nd century CE as the city "Indabara", possibly derived from the Prakrit form "Indabatta", and which was probably in the vicinity of Delhi.[15] Upinder Singh (2004) describes this equation of Indabara with Indraprastha as "plausible".[16] Indraprastha is also named as a pratigana (district) of the Delhi region in a Sanskrit inscription dated to 1327 CE, discovered in Raisina area of New Delhi.[17]

D. C. Sircar, an epigraphist, believed Indraprastha was a significant city in the Mauryan period, based on analysis of a stone carving found in the Delhi area at Sriniwaspuri which records the reign of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. Singh has cast doubt on this interpretation because the inscription does not actually refer to Indraprastha and although "... a place of importance must certainly have been located in the vicinity of the rock edict, exactly which one it was and what it was known as, is uncertain." Similarly, remains, such as an iron pillar, that have been associated with Ashoka are not indubitably so: their composition is atypical and the inscriptions are vague.[6]

Delhi

Delhi (/ˈdɛli/; Hindustani pronunciation: [ˈdɪlːiː] Dillī; Punjabi pronunciation: [ˈdɪlːiː] Dillī; Hindustani pronunciation: [ˈdɛɦliː] Dêhlī),[18] officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India.[19][20] Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders with the state of Uttar Pradesh in the east and with the state of Haryana in the remaining directions. The NCT covers an area of 1,484 square kilometres (573 sq mi).[21] According to the 2011 census, Delhi's city proper population was over 11 million,[22][23][24] while the NCT's population was about 16.8 million.[25] Delhi's urban agglomeration, which includes the satellite cities of Ghaziabad, Faridabad, Gurgaon and Noida in an area known as the National Capital Region (NCR), has an estimated population of over 28 million, making it the largest metropolitan area in India and the second-largest in the world (after Tokyo).[26]

The topography of the medieval fort Purana Qila on the banks of the river Yamuna matches the literary description of the citadel Indraprastha in the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata; however, excavations in the area have revealed no signs of an ancient built environment. From the early 13th-century until the mid-19th century, Delhi was the capital of two major empires, the Delhi sultanate and the Mughal Empire, which covered large parts of South Asia. All three UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the city, the Qutub Minar, Humayun's Tomb, and the Red Fort belong to this period. Delhi was the early centre of Sufism and Qawwali music. The names of Nizamuddin Auliya and Amir Khusrau are prominently associated with it. The Khariboli dialect of Delhi was part of a linguistic development that gave rise to the literature of the Urdu language and then of Modern Standard Hindi. Major Urdu poets from Delhi are Mir Taqi Mir, and Mirza Ghalib. Delhi was a major centre of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. In 1911, New Delhi, a southern region within Delhi, became the capital of the British Indian Empire. During the Partition of India in 1947, Delhi was transformed from a Mughal city to a Punjabi one, losing two-thirds of its Muslims residents, in part to the pressure brought to bear by arriving Hindu refugees from western Punjab.[27] After independence in 1947, New Delhi continued as the capital of the Dominion of India, and after 1950 of the Republic of India.

Delhi is home to the second highest number of billionaires and millionaires of any city in India.[28] Delhi ranks fifth among the Indian states and union territories in human development index.[29] Delhi has the second-highest GDP per capita in India (after Goa).[30] Although a union territory, the political administration of the NCT of Delhi today more closely resembles that of a state of India, with its own legislature, high court and an executive council of ministers headed by a Chief Minister. New Delhi is jointly administered by the federal government of India and the local government of Delhi, and serves as the capital of the nation as well as the NCT of Delhi. Delhi is also the centre of the National Capital Region, which is a 'interstate regional planning' area created in 1985.[31][32] Delhi hosted the inaugural 1951 Asian Games, 1982 Asian Games, 1983 NAM Summit, 2010 Men's Hockey World Cup, 2010 Commonwealth Games, 2012 BRICS Summit and was one of the major host cities of the 2011 Cricket World Cup.

Toponym

The ancient name of the site of modern Delhi is Indraprastha, which literally means "Plain of Indra"[1] or "City of Indra" in Sanskrit.

There are a number of myths and legends associated with the origin of the name Delhi. One of them is derived from Dhillu or Dilu, a king who built a city at this location in 50 BCE and named it after himself.[33][34][35] Another legend holds that the name of the city is based on the Hindi/Prakrit word dhili (loose) and that it was used by the Tomaras to refer to the city because the iron pillar of Delhi had a weak foundation and had to be moved.[35] According to Panjab Notes and Queries, the name of the city at the time of King Prithviraj was dilpat, and that dilpat and dilli are probably derived from the old Hindi word dil meaning "eminence". The former director of the Archaeological Survey of India, Alexander Cunningham, mentioned that dilli later became dihli/dehli.[36] Some suggest the coins in circulation in the region under the Tomaras were called dehliwal.[37] According to the Bhavishya Purana, King Prithiviraja of Indraprastha built a new fort in the modern-day Purana Qila area for the convenience of all four castes in his kingdom. He ordered the construction of a gateway to the fort and later named the fort dehali.[38] Some historians believe that Dhilli or Dhillika is the original name for the city while others believe the name could be a corruption of the Hindustani words dehleez or dehali—both terms meaning "threshold" or "gateway"—and symbolic of the city as a gateway to the Gangetic Plain.[39][40][41]

The people of Delhi are referred to as Delhiites or Dilliwalas.[42] The city is referenced in various idioms of the Northern Indo-Aryan languages. Examples include:

  • Abhī Dillī dūr hai (अभी दिल्ली दूर है / ابھی دلی دور ہے) or its Persian version, Hanuz Dehli dur ast (هنوز دهلی دور است), literally meaning "Delhi is still far away", which is generically said about a task or journey still far from completion.[43][44]
  • Ās-pās barse, Dillī pānī tarse (आस-पास बरसे, दिल्ली पानी तरसे \ آس پاس برسے، دلی پانی ترسے), literally meaning "It pours all around, while Delhi lies parched". An allusion to the sometimes semi-arid climate of Delhi, it idiomatically refers to situations of deprivation when one is surrounded by plenty.[44]

The form Delhi, used in Latin script and strangely with an h following an l, originated under colonial rule and is a corrupt spelling based on the Urdu name of the city (دہلی, Dehli).[45]

History

Main articles: History of Delhi and Old Delhi

Ancient and Early Medieval Periods

File:Purana Qila ramparts, Delhi.jpg
The walls of the 16th-century Purana Qila built on a mound whose topography is thought to match the literary description of the citadel Indraprastha in the Sanskrit-epic Mahabharata, though excavations in the vicinity have yielded no evidence of construction.[46]

Traditionally seven cities have been associated with the region of Delhi. The earliest, Indraprastha, is part of a literary description in the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata (composed c. 400 BCE to 200 CE but describing an earlier time) which situates a city on a knoll on the banks of the river Yamuna. According to art historian Catherine B. Asher, the topographical description of the Mahabharata matches the area of Purana Qila, a 14th-century CE fort of the Delhi sultanate, but the analogy does not go much further. Whereas the Mahabharata speaks of a beautifully decorated city with surrounding fortification, the excavations have yielded "uneven findings of painted gray pottery characteristic of the eleventh century BCE; no signs of a built environment, much less fortifications, have been revealed."[46]

The earliest architectural relics date back to the Maurya period (c. 300 BCE); in 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (273–235 BCE) was discovered near Srinivaspuri. Remains of several major cities can be found in Delhi. The first of these were in the southern part of present-day Delhi. King Anang Pal of the Tomara dynasty built Lal Kot and several temples in 1052 CE. Vigraharaj Chauhan conquered Lal Kot in the mid-12th century and renamed it Qila Rai Pithora.

Late Medieval Period

See also: Delhi Sultanate
A view of Qutab minor
At 72.5 m (238 ft), the Qutb Minar, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Delhi,[47] was completed during the reign of Sultan Illtutmish in the 13th century; although its style has some similarities with the Jarkurgan minaret, it is more closely related to the Ghaznavid and Ghurid minarets of Central Asia[48]

The king Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated in 1192 by Muhammad Ghori in the second battle of Tarain, an invader from Afghanistan, who made a concerted effort to conquer northern India.[33] Qutb-ud-din Aibak, was given the responsibility of governing the conquered territories of India until Ghori returned to his capital, Ghor. When Ghori died without an heir in 1206 CE, Qutb-ud-din assumed control of Ghori's Indian possessions, and laid the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mamluk dynasty. He began construction of the Qutb Minar and Quwwat-al-Islam (Might of Islam) mosque, the earliest extant mosque in India. It was his successor, Iltutmish (1211–1236), who consolidated the Turkic conquest of northern India.[33][49] Razia Sultan, daughter of Iltutmish, succeeded him as the Sultan of Delhi. She was the first and only woman to rule over Delhi prior to the British Raj.

For the next three hundred years, Delhi was ruled by a succession of Turkic and an Afghan, Lodi dynasty. They built several forts and townships that are part of the seven cities of Delhi.[50] Delhi was a major centre of Sufism during this period.[51] The Mamluk Sultanate (Delhi) was overthrown in 1290 by Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji (1290–1320). Under the second Khalji ruler, Ala-ud-din Khalji, the Delhi sultanate extended its control south of the Narmada River in the Deccan. The Delhi sultanate reached its greatest extent during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–1351). In an attempt to bring the whole of the Deccan under control, he moved his capital to Daulatabad, Maharashtra in central India. However, by moving away from Delhi he lost control of the north and was forced to return to Delhi to restore order. The southern provinces then broke away. In the years following the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388), the Delhi Sultanate rapidly began to lose its hold over its northern provinces. Delhi was captured and sacked by Timur in 1398,[52] who massacred 100,000 captive civilian.[53] Delhi's decline continued under the Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451), until the sultanate was reduced to Delhi and its hinterland. Under the Afghan Lodi dynasty (1451–1526), the Delhi sultanate recovered control of the Punjab and the Gangetic plain to once again achieve domination over Northern India. However, the recovery was short-lived and the sultanate was destroyed in 1526 by Babur, founder of the Mughal dynasty.

Early Modern Period

See also: Mughal Empire
Red Fort with the Indian Flag at the centre
Red Fort, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was the main residence of the Mughal emperors for nearly 200 years.

In 1526, Babur a descendant of Genghis Khan and Timur, from the Fergana Valley in modern-day Uzbekistan invaded India, defeated the last Lodhi sultan in the First Battle of Panipat and founded the Mughal Empire that ruled from Delhi and Agra.[33] The Mughal dynasty ruled Delhi for more than three centuries, with a sixteen-year hiatus during the reigns of Sher Shah Suri and Hemu from 1540 to 1556.[54] Shah Jahan built the seventh city of Delhi that bears his name Shahjahanabad, which served as the capital of the Mughal Empire from 1638 and is today known as the Old City or Old Delhi.[55]

After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughal Empire's influence declined rapidly as the Hindu Maratha Empire from Deccan Plateau rose to prominence.[56] In 1737, Maratha forces led by Baji Rao I sacked Delhi following their victory against the Mughals in the First Battle of Delhi. In 1739, the Mughal Empire lost the huge Battle of Karnal in less than three hours against the numerically outnumbered but militarily superior Persian army led by Nader Shah of Persia. After his invasion, he completely sacked and looted Delhi, carrying away immense wealth including the Peacock Throne, the Daria-i-Noor, and Koh-i-Noor. The Mughals, severely further weakened, could never overcome this crushing defeat and humiliation which also left the way open for more invaders to come, including eventually the British.[57][58][59] Nader eventually agreed to leave the city and India after forcing the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah I to beg him for mercy and granting him the keys of the city and the royal treasury.[60] A treaty signed in 1752 made Marathas the protectors of the Mughal throne in Delhi.[61] The city was sacked again in 1757 by the forces of Ahmad Shah Durrani, although it was not annexed by the Afghan Empire and being its vassal state under the Mughal emperor. Then the Marathas battled and won control of Delhi from the Mughals.[62] By the end of the century, Delhi had also come under control of the Bharatpur State and the Sikh Empire.

Colonial Period

See also: British Raj

In 1803, during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, the forces of British East India Company defeated the Maratha forces in the Battle of Delhi.[63]

File:NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg
Six stamps issued by the Government of British India to mark the inauguration of New Delhi in February 1931

During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Delhi fell to the forces of East India Company after a bloody fight known as the Siege of Delhi. The city came under the direct control of the British Government in 1858. It was made a district province of the Punjab.[33] In 1911, it was announced that the capital of British-held territories in India was to be transferred from Calcutta to Delhi.[64] The name "New Delhi" was given in 1927, and the new capital was inaugurated on 13 February 1931. New Delhi was officially declared as the capital of the Union of India after the country gained independence on 15 August 1947.[65] It has expanded since; the small part of it that was constructed during the British period has come to be informally known as Lutyens' Delhi.[66]

Partition and post-independence

File:New Delhi India ~Khan Market.jpg
Khan Market in New Delhi, now a high-end shopping district, was established in 1951 to help refugees of the Partition of India, especially those from the North West Frontier Province (NWFP). It honours Khan Abdul Jabbar Khan, Chief Minister of NWFP during the Partition.[67][68]

During the partition of India, around five lakh Hindu and Sikh refugees, mainly from West Punjab fled to Delhi, while around three lakh Muslim residents of the city migrated to Pakistan.[69][70] Ethnic Punjabis are believed to account for at least 40% of Delhi's total population and are predominantly Hindi-speaking Punjabi Hindus.[71][72][73] Migration to Delhi from the rest of India continues (as of 2013), contributing more to the rise of Delhi's population than the birth rate, which is declining.[74]

The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 created the Union Territory of Delhi from its predecessor, the Chief Commissioner's Province of Delhi.[75][76] The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991 declared the Union Territory of Delhi to be formally known as the National Capital Territory of Delhi.[77] The Act gave Delhi its own legislative assembly along Civil lines, though with limited powers.[77]

In 2001, the Parliament of India building in New Delhi was attacked by armed militants, killing six security personnel.[78] India suspected Pakistan-based militant groups were behind the attack, which caused a major diplomatic crisis between the two countries.[79] There were further terrorist attacks in Delhi in 2005 and 2008, resulting in a total of 92 deaths.[80][81]

The 2020 Delhi riots, Delhi's worst communal violence in decades, which was noted for killings and property destruction in North East Delhi, began on 23 February 2020 and was caused mainly by Hindu mobs attacking Muslims.[82][83] Of the 53 people killed, two-thirds were Muslims.[84][85][86] The dead also included a policeman, an intelligence officer and over a dozen Hindus.[85]


See also

References

Notes

  1. ↑ For instance, Indologist J. A. B. van Buitenen, who translated the Mahabharata, wrote in 1973 that "there can be no reasonable doubt about the locations of Hastinapura, of Indraprastha (Delhi's Purana Qila [...]), and of Mathura
  2. ↑ Archaeological surveys were carried out in 1954-1955 and between 1969 and 1973.[9]
  3. ↑ The 1954-1955 sessions revealed pottery of the Painted Grey Ware (before c.600 BCE), Northern Black Polished Ware (c.600-200 BCE), Shunga, and Kushan Empire periods. The 1969-1973 sessions failed to reach the PGW levels, but found continuous occupation from the NBPW period to the 19th century: the Maurya-period settlement yielded mud-brick and wattle-and-daub houses, brick drains, wells, figurines of terracotta, a stone carving, a stamp seal impression, and a copper coin.[7]
  4. ↑ Historian William Dalrymple quotes archaeologist B. B. Lal's suggestion, "the main part of the city must probably have been to the south – through the Humayun Gate towards Humayun's Tomb [...] where the Zoo and Sundernagar are now."[10]

Citations

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Upinder Singh (25 September 2017). Political Violence in Ancient India [archive]. Harvard University Press. p. 401. ISBN 978-0-674-98128-7. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Singh2017" defined multiple times with different content
  2. ↑ Imperial Gazetteer of India (1911). Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 11 [archive]. Oxford Press. p. 236.
  3. ↑ "Geeta Jayanti 2019: पांडवों ने कौरवों से मांगे थे ये पांच गांव जानिए इनके बारे में" [archive]. Nai Dunia (in हिन्दी). 5 December 2019. Retrieved 2 September 2020.
  4. ↑ "इन पांच गांवों के कारण हुआ था पांडव और कौरवों में महाभारत का युद्ध | mahabharata war" [archive]. hindi.webdunia.com. Retrieved 2 September 2020.
  5. ↑ J. A. B. van Buitenen; Johannes Adrianus Bernardus Buitenen; James L. Fitzgerald (1973). The Mahabharata, Volume 1: Book 1: The Book of the Beginning [archive]. University of Chicago Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-226-84663-7.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Singh, Upinder, ed. (2006). Delhi: Ancient History [archive]. Berghahn Books. pp. xvii–xxi, 53–56. ISBN 9788187358299.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Amalananda Ghosh (1990). An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology, Volume 2. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. pp. 353–354. ISBN 978-81-215-0089-0.
  8. ↑ Witzel, Michael (1999). "Aryan and non-Aryan Names in Vedic India. Data for the linguistic situation, c. 1900-500 B.C.". In Bronhorst, Johannes; Deshpande, Madhav (eds.). Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia [archive] (PDF). Harvard University Press. pp. 337–404 (p.25 of PDF). ISBN 978-1-888789-04-1.
  9. ↑ Singh, Upinder, ed. (2006). Delhi: Ancient History [archive]. Berghahn Books. p. 187. ISBN 9788187358299.
  10. ↑ William Dalrymple (2003). City of Djinns: A Year in Delhi [archive]. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 370. ISBN 978-1-101-12701-8.
  11. ↑ Delhi city guide [archive]. Eicher Goodearth Limited, Delhi Tourism. 1998. p. 162. ISBN 81-900601-2-0.
  12. ↑ Tankha, Madhur (11 March 2014). "The discovery of Indraprastha" [archive]. The HIndu. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 H.C. Raychaudhuri (1950). Political History of Ancient India: from the accession of Parikshit to the extinction of the Gupta dynasty. University of Calcutta. pp. 41, 133.
  14. ↑ Moti Chandra (1977). Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India [archive]. Abhinav Publications. p. 77. ISBN 978-81-7017-055-6.
  15. ↑ J. W. McCrindle (1885). Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy [archive]. Thacker, Spink, & Company. p. 128 [archive].
  16. ↑ Upinder Singh (2004). The discovery of ancient India: early archaeologists and the beginnings of archaeology [archive]. Permanent Black. p. 67. ISBN 978-81-7824-088-6.
  17. ↑ Singh (ed., 2006), p.186
  18. ↑ Platts, John Thompson (1960) [First published 1884]. A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English [archive]. London: Oxford University Press. p. 546. ISBN 0-19-864309-8. OCLC 3201841 [archive]. Archived [archive] from the original on 9 January 2022. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
  19. ↑ "The Constitution (Sixty-Ninth Amendment) Act, 1991" [archive]. Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India. Archived from the original [archive] on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 23 November 2014.
  20. ↑ Habib, Irfan (1999). The agrarian system of Mughal India, 1556–1707 [archive]. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-562329-1. Archived [archive] from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 6 November 2015. The current Survey of India spellings are followed for place names except where they vary rather noticeably from the spellings in our sources: thus I read 'Dehli' not 'Delhi ...
  21. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Delhi Info
  22. ↑ "Census of India: Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011, NCT of Delhi" [archive]. Census of India. 2011. Archived from the original [archive] on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
  23. ↑ Delhi Metropolitan/City Population section of "Delhi Population Sex Ratio in Delhi Literacy rate Delhi NCR". 2011 Census of India. {{cite web}}: |archive-url= requires |url= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)
  24. ↑ "This study settles the Delhi versus Mumbai debate: The Capital's economy is streets ahead" [archive]. Archived [archive] from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
  25. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named delhi2011
  26. ↑ "The World's Cities in 2018" [archive] (PDF). United Nations. Archived [archive] (PDF) from the original on 31 August 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2021.
  27. ↑ Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partition of India [archive], Cambridge University Press, pp. 118–119, ISBN 978-0-521-85661-4, archived [archive] from the original on 2 December 2021, retrieved 3 December 2021, It is now almost a cliché that the Partition transformed Delhi from a Mughal to a Punjabi city. The bitter experiences of the refugees encouraged them to support right-wing Hindu parties. ... Trouble began in September (1947) after the arrival of refugees from Pakistan who were determined on revenge and driving Muslims out of properties which they could then occupy. Gandhi in his prayer meetings in Birla House denounced the 'crooked and ungentlemanly' squeezing out of Muslims. Despite these exhortations, two-thirds of the city's Muslims were to eventually abandon India's capital.
  28. ↑ "Mumbai richest Indian city with total wealth of $820 billion, Delhi comes second: Report" [archive]. The Indian Express. 27 February 2017. Archived [archive] from the original on 27 February 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
  29. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named snhdi-gdl
  30. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Delhi_Budget
  31. ↑ "Rationale" [archive]. ncrpb.nic.in. NCR Planning Board. Archived from the original [archive] on 16 December 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2017. The National Capital Region (NCR) in India was constituted under the NCRPB Act, 1985
  32. ↑ "Census 2011" [archive] (PDF). National Capital Region Planning Board. National Informatics Centre. p. 3. Archived [archive] (PDF) from the original on 6 April 2016. Retrieved 26 March 2016.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 "Chapter 1: Introduction" [archive] (PDF). Economic Survey of Delhi, 2005–2006. Planning Department, Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi. pp. 1–7. Archived from the original [archive] (PDF) on 13 November 2016. Retrieved 21 December 2011.
  34. ↑ Bakshi, S.R. (1995) [2002]. Delhi Through Ages. Whispering Eye Bangdat. p. 2. ISBN 978-81-7488-138-0.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Smith, George (1882). The Geography of British India, Political & Physical [archive]. J. Murray. pp. 216 [archive]–217. Retrieved 1 November 2008. raja delhi BC.
  36. ↑ "Archived copy" [archive]. Archived [archive] from the original on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  37. ↑ "Our Pasts II, History Textbook for Class VII" [archive]. NCERT. Archived from the original [archive] on 23 June 2007. Retrieved 6 July 2007.
  38. ↑ Delhi City [archive] Archived [archive] 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. The Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909, v. 11, p. 236.
  39. ↑ "A Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi, and English" [archive]. Dsal.uchicago.edu. 1884. Archived [archive] from the original on 16 October 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  40. ↑ Cohen, Richard J. (October–December 1989). "An Early Attestation of the Toponym Dhilli". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 109 (4): 513–519. doi:10.2307/604073 [archive]. JSTOR 604073 [archive].
  41. ↑ Austin, Ian; Thhakur Nahar Singh Jasol. "Chauhans (Cahamanas, Cauhans)" [archive]. The Mewar Encyclopedia. mewarindia.com. Archived from the original [archive] on 14 November 2006. Retrieved 22 December 2006.
  42. ↑ "Why developers charge a premium for upper storeys in Delhi/NCR region" [archive]. The Economic Times. 5 August 2011. Archived [archive] from the original on 27 January 2013. Retrieved 30 May 2012.
  43. ↑ John Murray (1924). "A handbook for travellers in India, Burma and Ceylon" [archive]. J. Murray, 1924. Archived [archive] from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 6 November 2015. 'Dilli hanoz dur ast' ('Delhi is still far off') – has passed into the currency of a proverb {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 S.W. Fallon; Dihlavi Fakir Chand (1886). "A dictionary of Hindustani proverbs" [archive]. Printed at the Medical hall press, 1886. Archived [archive] from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 6 November 2015. Abhi Dilli dur hai {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  45. ↑ Syed Mahdi Husain: Bahadur Shah Zafar and the War of 1857 in Dehli. Aakar Books, Delhi 2006, ISBN 81-87879-91-2, p. LV of the preface.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Asher, Catherine (25 September 2000), "Delhi walled: Changing boundaries", in James D. Tracy (ed.), City Walls: The Urban Enceinte in Global Perspective [archive], Cambridge University Press, pp. 247–, 250, ISBN 9780521652216, archived [archive] from the original on 9 January 2022, retrieved 12 October 2021
  47. ↑ "Under threat: The Magnificent Minaret of Jam" [archive]. The New Courier No 1. UNESCO. October 2002. Archived [archive] from the original on 22 May 2006. Retrieved 3 May 2006.
  48. ↑ McClary, Richard Piran (2020), Medieval Monuments of Central Asia: Qarakhanid Architecture of the 11th and 12th Centuries, Edinburgh University Press, p. 287, The second story of the minaret, built during the reign of Iltutmish" (r. 1211-36), features a similar form of ribbing to the shaft as is seen at the Jar Kurgan minaret, but the lower section features alternating flanges and ribs, while the third storey is entirely flanged, with a stellate plan. The Qutb Minar is clearly more closely related to the Ghaznavid and Ghurid traditions of minaret construction, although all the surviving large minarets from Central Asia can be seen to share certain general characteristics, namely, a tall tapering shaft and bands of decoration.
  49. ↑ "India: Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi" [archive] (PDF). State of Conservation of the World Heritage Properties in the Asia-Pacific Region: : Summaries of Periodic Reports 2003 by property, Section II. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. pp. 71–72. Archived from the original [archive] (PDF) on 24 May 2006. Retrieved 22 December 2006.
  50. ↑ "Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India" [archive]. Sfusd.k12.ca.us. Archived from the original [archive] on 23 April 2008. Retrieved 7 September 2009.
  51. ↑ Mobilereference (2007). Travel Delhi, India [archive]. History section. p. 10. ISBN 9781605010519 – via Google books.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  52. ↑ "The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Timurid Empire)" [archive]. Ucalgary.ca. Archived from the original [archive] on 16 August 2009. Retrieved 7 September 2009.
  53. ↑ Genocide: a history [archive] Archived [archive] 1 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine.. W.D. Rubinstein (2004). p. 28. ISBN 978-0-582-50601-5
  54. ↑ "Sher Shah – The Lion King" [archive]. India's History: Medieval India. indhistory.com. Archived from the original [archive] on 12 December 2006. Retrieved 22 December 2006.
  55. ↑ Mobilereference (2007). Travel Delhi, India [archive]. p. 12. ISBN 9781605010519 – via Google Books.
  56. ↑ Thomas, Amelia (2008). Rajasthan, Delhi and Agra. Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74104-690-8.
  57. ↑ Irvine, William (1971). Later Mughal [archive]. Archived [archive] from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
  58. ↑ Boland-Crewe, Tara; Lea, David (2 September 2003). Territories and States of India [archive]. ISBN 9781135356255. Archived [archive] from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
  59. ↑ "Iran in the Age of the Raj" [archive]. Avalanchepress.com. Archived [archive] from the original on 13 January 2011. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  60. ↑ Jagmohan (2005). Soul and Structure of Governance in India [archive]. ISBN 9788177648317. Archived [archive] from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
  61. ↑ Gordon, Stewart (1993). The Marathas 1600–1818, Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26883-7.
  62. ↑ "Bollywood's 'Great Betrayal' of Afghanistan: "Panipat" and the cost of vilifying Ahmad Shah Durrani" [archive]. 9 March 2020. Archived [archive] from the original on 9 November 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
  63. ↑ Mayaram, Shail (2003). Against history, against state: counter perspective from the margins Cultures of history. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12731-8.
  64. ↑ "Shifting pain" [archive]. The Times of India. 11 December 2011. Archived from the original [archive] on 27 January 2013. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
  65. ↑ Mobilereference (1 January 2007). Travel Delhi [archive]. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-60501-051-9 – via Google books.
  66. ↑ "Lutyens' Delhi in race for UN heritage status" [archive]. Hindustan Times. 11 June 2012. Archived from the original [archive] on 15 June 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
  67. ↑ Lakhani, Somya (17 May 2019). "Khan Market's humble beginnings: Meant for refugees, 'doomed to fail'" [archive]. Indian Express. Archived [archive] from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2021. 'This market was set up for those who had been displaced; refugees who had migrated from the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) ...' said Sanjiv Mehra, president of Khan Market Traders' Association and owner of Allied Toy Store. It was aptly named after popular NWFP leader Khan Abdul Jabbar Khan or Dr Khan Sahib, the elder brother of Pashtun Independence activist Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan or Frontier Gandhi.
  68. ↑ Bhardwaj, Mayank (31 May 2019). "'Khan Market Gang': Modi mocks his elite adversaries" [archive]. Reuters. Archived [archive] from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2021. The Indian government named the market after Abdul Jabbar Khan, the brother of Pakistan's Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a close friend of 'Mahatma' Gandhi and known as the 'Frontier Gandhi'. Khan was honoured because of his role in ensuring safe passage for millions of Hindus fleeing sectarian violence after independence and the bloody 1947 partition of the sub-continent into India and Pakistan, said Sanjeev Mehra, president of the Khan Market Traders' Association.
  69. ↑ "Capital gains: How 1947 gave birth to a new identity, a new ambition, a new Delhi" [archive] Archived [archive] 13 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine.. Hindustan Times. 24 April 2018.
  70. ↑ "How Muslim ghettos came about in Delhi" [archive]. 3 March 2020. Archived [archive] from the original on 31 July 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2021.
  71. ↑ "Delhi Assembly Elections 2015: Important Facts And Major Stakeholders Mobile Site" [archive]. India TV News. 6 February 2015. Archived from the original [archive] on 30 December 2015. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
  72. ↑ Jupinderjit Singh (February 2015). "Why Punjabis are central to Delhi election" [archive]. tribuneindia.com/news/sunday-special/perspective/why-punjabis-are-central-to-delhi-election/36387.html. Archived [archive] from the original on 9 January 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
  73. ↑ Sanjay Yadav (2008). The Invasion of Delhi [archive]. Worldwide Books. ISBN 978-81-88054-00-8. Archived [archive] from the original on 8 September 2021. Retrieved 14 September 2021.
  74. ↑ "Fall in Delhi birth rate fails to arrest population rise" [archive]. The Hindu. Chennai. 3 January 2005. Archived from the original [archive] on 4 June 2007. Retrieved 19 December 2006.
  75. ↑ "The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956" [archive]. Ministry of Law and Justice (India). 1956. Archived from the original [archive] on 1 May 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
  76. ↑ "The States Reorganisation Act, 1956" [archive] (PDF). Ministry of Law and Justice (India). 1956. Archived from the original [archive] (PDF) on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 "The Constitution (Sixty-Ninth Amendment) Act, 1991" [archive]. Government of India. National Informatics Centre, Ministry of Communications and Information Technology, Government of India. Archived [archive] from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2007.
  78. ↑ "Terrorists attack Parliament; five intruders, six cops killed" [archive]. Rediff.com. 13 December 2001. Archived [archive] from the original on 6 October 2013. Retrieved 2 November 2008.
  79. ↑ "India and Pakistan: Who will strike first?" [archive]. Economist. 20 December 2001. Archived [archive] from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 2 November 2008.
  80. ↑ "Delhi blasts death toll at 62" [archive]. Archived from the original [archive] on 5 November 2005.
  81. ↑ Tripathi, Rahul (14 September 2008). "Serial blasts rock Delhi; 30 dead, 90 injured-India" [archive]. The Times of India. Archived [archive] from the original on 15 September 2008. Retrieved 3 November 2008.
  82. ↑ Ellis-Peterson, Hannah; Azizur Rahman, Shaikh (16 March 2020), "Delhi's Muslims despair of justice after police implicated in riots" [archive], The Guardian, Delhi, archived [archive] from the original on 17 March 2020, retrieved 17 March 2020, As the mob attacks came once, then twice and then a third time in this north-east Delhi neighbourhood, desperate stallholders repeatedly ran to Gokalpuri and Dayalpur police stations crying out for help. But each time they found the gates locked from the inside. For three days, no help came. ... Since the riots broke out in Delhi at the end of February, the worst religious conflict to engulf the capital in decades, questions have persisted about the role that the Delhi police played in enabling the violence, which was predominately Hindu mobs attacking Muslims. Of the 51 people who died, at least three-quarters were Muslim, and many Muslims are still missing.
  83. ↑ Gettleman, Jeffrey; Abi-Habib, Maria (1 March 2020), "In India, Modi's Policies Have Lit a Fuse" [archive], The New York Times, archived [archive] from the original on 1 March 2020, retrieved 1 March 2020, This past week, as neighborhoods in India's capital burned and religiously driven bloodletting consumed more than 40 lives, most of them Muslim, India's government was quick to say that the violence was spontaneous ... Many Muslims are now leaving, hoisting their unburned things on their heads and trudging away from streets that still smell of smoke.
  84. ↑ Gettleman, Jeffrey; Yasir, Sameer; Raj, Suhasini; Kumar, Hari (12 March 2020), "'If We Kill You, Nothing Will Happen': How Delhi's Police Turned Against Muslims" [archive], The New York Times, Photographs by Loke, Atul, archived [archive] from the original on 13 March 2020, retrieved 13 March 2020, Two-thirds of the more than 50 people who were killed and have been identified were Muslim.
  85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 Slater, Joanna; Masih, Niha (6 March 2020), "In Delhi's worst violence in decades, a man watched his brother burn" [archive], The Washington Post, archived [archive] from the original on 7 March 2020, retrieved 6 March 2020, At least 53 people were killed or suffered deadly injuries in violence that persisted for two days. The majority of those killed were Muslims, many shot, hacked or burned to death. A police officer and an intelligence officer were also killed. So too were more than a dozen Hindus, most of them shot or assaulted.
  86. ↑ Slater, Joanna; Masih, Niha (2 March 2020), "What Delhi's worst communal violence in decades means for Modi's India" [archive], The Washington Post, archived [archive] from the original on 3 March 2020, retrieved 15 March 2020, Zaitoon, 40, who goes by one name, half-cried as she rummaged through the items. She said mobs entered her lane shouting 'Jai Shri Ram,' or 'Victory to Lord Ram,' a slogan favored by Modi's party, and demanded to know which houses were occupied by Muslims. She said she saw a neighbor set on fire in front of her, an account repeated by other witnesses.

Sources

This article includes modified content derived from Wikipedia. Articles Delhi, New Delhi, Indraprastha at wikipedia [1] [archive][2] [archive][3] [archive]

External links

File:Wikiquote-logo.svg
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Indraprastha
File:Commons-logo.svg
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lua error in Module:Commons_link at line 63: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value)..
Retrieved from "https://en.dharmapedia.net/w/index.php?title=Indraprastha&oldid=59435"