China

From Dharmapedia Wiki
Jump to navigation Jump to search

China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the world's most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion.[1] The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing.[2] It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four direct-controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai and Chongqing) and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau), also claiming sovereignty over Taiwan. The country's major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a great power and a major regional power within Asia, and has been characterized as a potential superpower.[3][4]


Names[edit]

China
File:China (Chinese characters).svg
"China" in Simplified (top) and Traditional (bottom) Chinese characters
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese 中国
Traditional Chinese 中國
Literal meaning Middle or Central State[5]
People's Republic of China
Simplified Chinese 中华人民共和国
Traditional Chinese 中華人民共和國
Tibetan name
Tibetan ཀྲུང་ཧྭ་མི་དམངས་སྤྱི
མཐུན་རྒྱལ་ཁབ
Zhuang name
Zhuang Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz
Mongolian name
Mongolian Bügüde nayiramdaqu dumdadu arad ulus, ᠪᠦᠭᠦᠳᠡ ᠨᠠᠶᠢᠷᠠᠮᠳᠠᠬᠤ ᠳᠤᠮᠳᠠᠳᠤ ᠠᠷᠠᠳ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ
Uyghur name
Uyghur
جۇڭخۇا خەلق جۇمھۇرىيىت
Manchu name
Manchu script ᡩᡡᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ
Romanization Dulimbai Gurun

The English name "China" is first attested in Richard Eden's 1555 translation[lower-alpha 1] of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa.[lower-alpha 2][10] The demonym, that is, the name for the people, and adjectival form "Chinese" developed later on the model of Portuguese chinês and French chinois.[11][lower-alpha 3] Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn (چین), and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna (चीन).[13] Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata (5th century BCE) and the Laws of Manu (2nd century BCE).[14] The traditional theory, proposed in the 17th century by Martino Martini[15] and supported by many later scholars, is that the word "China" and its earlier related forms are ultimately derived from the state of Qin (, Old Chinese: *Dzin),[16] the westernmost of the Chinese states during the Zhou dynasty which unified China to form the Qin dynasty.[17] There are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of "China".[14]

The official name of the modern state is the "People's Republic of China" (Chinese: 中华人民共和国; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó). The shorter form is "China" Zhōngguó (中国), from zhōng ("central" or "middle") and guó ("state, nation-state"),[5][lower-alpha 4] a term which developed under the Zhou Dynasty in reference to its royal demesne.[lower-alpha 5] It was then applied to the area around Luoyi (present-day Luoyang) during the Eastern Zhou and then to China's Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing.[18] It was often used as a cultural concept to distinguish the Huaxia tribes from perceived "barbarians"[18] and was the source of the English name "Middle Kingdom".[20][21] A more literary or inclusive name, alluding to the "land of Chinese civilization", is Zhōnghuá (中华).[22] It developed during the Wei and Jin dynasties as a contraction of "the central state of the Huaxia".[18] During the 1950s and 1960s, after the defeat of the Kuomingtang in the Chinese Civil War, it was also referred to as "Communist China" or "Red China", to be differentiated from "Nationalist China" or "Free China".[23]

History[edit]

History of China
History of China
ANCIENT
Neolithic c. 8500 – c. 2070 BCE
Xia dynasty c. 2070 – c. 1600 BCE
Shang dynasty c. 1600 – c. 1046 BCE
Zhou dynasty c. 1046 – 256 BCE
 Western Zhou
 Eastern Zhou
   Spring and Autumn
   Warring States
IMPERIAL
Qin dynasty 221–206 BCE
Han dynasty 206 BCE – 220 CE
  Western Han
  Xin dynasty
  Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220–280
  Wei, Shu and Wu
Jin dynasty 265–420
  Western Jin
  Eastern Jin Sixteen Kingdoms
Northern and Southern dynasties
420–589
Sui dynasty 581–618
Tang dynasty 618–907
  (Second Zhou dynasty 690–705)
Five Dynasties and
Ten Kingdoms

907–960
Liao dynasty
907–1125
Song dynasty
960–1279
  Northern Song Western Xia
  Southern Song Jin
Yuan dynasty 1271–1368
Ming dynasty 1368–1644
Qing dynasty 1644–1912
MODERN
Republic of China 1912–present
  Taiwan
1945–present
People's Republic
of China

1949–present

Prehistory[edit]

Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China between 2.24 million and 250,000 years ago.[24] The hominid fossils of Peking Man, a Homo erectus who used fire,[25] were discovered in a cave at Zhoukoudian near Beijing; they have been dated to between 680,000 and 780,000 years ago.[26] The fossilized teeth of Homo sapiens (dated to 125,000–80,000 years ago) have been discovered in Fuyan Cave in Dao County, Hunan.[27] Chinese proto-writing existed in Jiahu around 7000 BCE,[28] Damaidi around 6000 BCE,[29] Dadiwan from 5800–5400 BCE, and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BCE. Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols (7th millennium BCE) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system.[28]

Early dynastic rule[edit]

File:Yinxu.jpg
Yinxu, the ruins of the capital of the late Shang Dynasty (14th century BCE)

According to Chinese tradition, the first dynasty was the Xia, which emerged around 2100 BCE.[30] The dynasty was considered mythical by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou, Henan in 1959.[31] It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia dynasty or of another culture from the same period.[32] The succeeding Shang dynasty is the earliest to be confirmed by contemporary records.[33] The Shang ruled the plain of the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BCE.[34] Their oracle bone script (from c. 1500 BCE)[35][36] represents the oldest form of Chinese writing yet found,[37] and is a direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters.[38] The Shang were conquered by the Zhou, who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE, though centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Many independent states eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou state and continually waged war with each other in the 300-year Spring and Autumn period, only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king. By the time of the Warring States period of the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were seven powerful sovereign states in what is now China, each with its own king, ministry and army.

Imperial China[edit]

File:Chinesische-mauer.jpg
China's First Emperor is famed for having united the Warring States' barriers to form the first Great Wall of China. Most of the present structure, however, dates to the Ming Dynasty.
File:Terracotta pmorgan.jpg
The Terracotta Army (c. 210 BCE) discovered outside the tomb of the First Emperor in modern Xi'an.

The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after the state of Qin conquered the other six kingdoms and established the first unified Chinese state. Its King Zheng proclaimed himself the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty (Qín Shǐhuáng or Shǐ Huángdì). He enacted Qin's legalist reforms throughout China, notably the forced standardization of Chinese characters, measurements, road widths (i.e., cart axles' length), and currency. His dynasty also conquered the Yue tribes in Guangxi, Guangdong, and Vietnam.[39] The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after the First Emperor's death, as his harsh authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion.[40][41]

Following a widespread civil war during which the imperial library at Xianyang was burned,[lower-alpha 6] the Han dynasty emerged to rule China between 206 BCE and CE 220, creating a cultural identity among its populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the Han Chinese.[40][41] The Han expanded the empire's territory considerably, with military campaigns reaching Central Asia, Mongolia, South Korea, and Yunnan, and the recovery of Guangdong and northern Vietnam from Nanyue. Han involvement in Central Asia and Sogdia helped establish the land route of the Silk Road, replacing the earlier path over the Himalayas to India. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world.[43] Despite the Han's initial decentralization and the official abandonment of the Qin philosophy of Legalism in favor of Confucianism, Qin's legalist institutions and policies continued to be employed by the Han government and its successors.[44]

After the collapse of Han, a period of strife known as Three Kingdoms followed,[45] whose central figures were later immortalized in one of the Four Classics of Chinese literature. At its end, Wei was swiftly overthrown by the Jin dynasty. The Jin fell to civil war upon the ascension of a developmentally-disabled emperor; the Five Barbarians then invaded and ruled northern China as the Sixteen Kingdoms. The Xianbei unified them as the Northern Wei, whose Emperor Xiaowen reversed his predecessors' apartheid policies and enforced a drastic sinification on his subjects, largely integrating them into Chinese culture. In the south, the general Liu Yu secured the abdication of the Jin in favor of the Liu Song. The various successors of these states became known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, with the two areas finally reunited by the Sui in 581. The Sui restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture and economy, constructed the Grand Canal, and patronized Buddhism. However, they fell quickly when their conscription for public works and a failed war with Korea provoked widespread unrest.[46][47]

File:Along the River During the Qingming Festival (detail of original).jpg
A detail from Along the River During the Qingming Festival, a 12th-century painting showing everyday life in the Song dynasty's capital, Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng)

Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a golden age.[48] The Tang Empire returned control of the Western Regions and the Silk Road,[49] and made the capital Chang'an a cosmopolitan urban center. However, it was devastated and weakened by the An Shi Rebellion in the 8th century.[50] In 907, the Tang disintegrated completely when the local military governors became ungovernable. The Song Dynasty ended the separatist situation in 960, leading to a balance of power between the Song and Khitan Liao. The Song was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade.[51] Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people, mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song dynasty also saw a revival of Confucianism, in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang,[52] and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as landscape art and porcelain were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity.[53][54] However, the military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jurchen Jin dynasty. In 1127, Emperor Huizong of Song and the capital Bianjing were captured during the Jin–Song Wars. The remnants of the Song retreated to southern China.[55]

In the 13th century, China was gradually conquered by the Mongol Empire. In 1271, the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty; the Yuan conquered the last remnant of the Song dynasty in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300.[56] A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 and founded the Ming dynasty. Under the Ming Dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that Zheng He led voyages throughout the world, reaching as far as Africa.[57] In the early years of the Ming Dynasty, China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. With the budding of capitalism, philosophers such as Wang Yangming further critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of individualism and equality of four occupations.[58] The scholar-official stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with the famines and the wars against Japanese invasions of Korea and Manchu invasions, led to an exhausted treasury.[59]

In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. The last Ming Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing dynasty, then allied with Ming dynasty general Wu Sangui, overthrew Li's short-lived Shun dynasty and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty.

End of dynastic rule[edit]

File:Regaining the Provincial Capital of Ruizhou.jpg
A 19th-century depiction of the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864).

The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. Its conquest of the Ming (1618–1683) cost 25 million lives and the economy of China shrank drastically.[60] After the Southern Ming ended, the further conquest of the Dzungar Khanate added Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang to the empire.[61] The centralized autocracy was strengthened to crack down on anti-Qing sentiment with the policy of valuing agriculture and restraining commerce, the Haijin ("sea ban"), and ideological control as represented by the literary inquisition, causing social and technological stagnation.[62][63] In the mid-19th century, the dynasty experienced Western imperialism in the Opium Wars with Britain and France. China was forced to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to the British[64] under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, the first of the Unequal Treaties. The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula, as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan.[65]

File:EightNationsCrime02.jpg
The Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China to defeat the anti-foreign Boxers and their Qing backers.

The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which tens of millions of people died, especially in the failed Taiping Rebellion that ravaged southern China in the 1850s and 1860s and the Dungan Revolt (1862–77) in the northwest. The initial success of the Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s was frustrated by a series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s.

In the 19th century, the great Chinese diaspora began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–79, in which between 9 and 13 million people died.[66] The Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan in 1898 to establish a modern constitutional monarchy, but these plans were thwarted by the Empress Dowager Cixi. The ill-fated anti-foreign Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms, the Xinhai Revolution of 1911–12 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China.

Republic of China (1912–1949)[edit]

File:Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek.jpg
Sun Yat-sen, the father of modern China (seated on right), and Chiang Kai-shek, later President of the Republic of China
File:1945 Mao and Chiang.jpg
Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong toasting together in 1946 following the end of World War II

On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president.[67] However, the presidency was later given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army, he was forced to abdicate and re-establish the republic.[68]

After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.[69][70] In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, the then Principal of the Republic of China Military Academy, was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political manoeuvrings, known collectively as the Northern Expedition.[71][72] The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to Nanjing and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's San-min program for transforming China into a modern democratic state.[73][74] The political division in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the Communist, People's Liberation Army (PLA) against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the Chinese Civil War. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the PLA retreated in the Long March, until Japanese aggression and the 1936 Xi'an Incident forced Chiang to confront Imperial Japan.[75]

The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), a theater of World War II, forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the PLA. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.[76] An estimated 200,000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.[77] During the war, China, along with the UK, the US and the Soviet Union, were referred to as "trusteeship of the powerful"[78] and were recognized as the Allied "Big Four" in the Declaration by United Nations.[79][80] Along with the other three great powers, China was one of the four major Allies of World War II, and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.[81][82] After the surrender of Japan in 1945, Taiwan, including the Pescadores, was returned to Chinese control. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. Constitutional rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China.[83]

People's Republic of China (1949–present)[edit]

File:Mao proclaiming the establishment of the PRC in 1949.jpg
Mao Zedong proclaiming the establishment of the PRC in 1949

Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist Party in control of most of mainland China, and the Kuomintang retreating offshore, reducing the ROC's territory to only Taiwan, Hainan, and their surrounding islands. On 1 October 1949, Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China.[84] In 1950, the People's Liberation Army succeeded in capturing Hainan from the ROC[85] and incorporating Tibet.[86] However, remaining Kuomintang forces continued to wage an insurgency in western China throughout the 1950s.[87]

The regime consolidated its popularity among the peasants through land reform, which saw between 1 and 2 million landlords executed.[88] Under its leadership, China developed an independent industrial system and its own nuclear weapons.[89] The Chinese population almost doubled from around 550 million to over 900 million.[90] However, the Great Leap Forward, a large-scale economic and social reform project, resulted in an estimated 45 million deaths between 1958 and 1961, mostly from starvation.[91] In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval which lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council.[92]

After Mao's death, the Gang of Four was quickly arrested and held responsible for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution. Deng Xiaoping took power in 1978, and instituted significant economic reforms. The Communist Party loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives, and the communes were gradually disbanded in favor of private land leases. This marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open-market environment.[93] China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982. In 1989, the violent suppression of student protests in Tiananmen Square brought condemnation and sanctions against the Chinese government from various countries.[94]

Jiang Zemin, Li Peng and Zhu Rongji led the nation in the 1990s. Under their administration, China's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.[95][96] The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001, and maintained its high rate of economic growth under Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao's leadership in the 2000s. However, rapid growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment,[97][98] and caused major social displacement.[99][100] Living standards continued to improve rapidly despite the late-2000s recession, but centralized political control remained tight.[101]

Preparations for a decadal Communist Party leadership change in 2012 were marked by factional disputes and political scandals.[102] During China's 18th National Communist Party Congress in November 2012, Hu Jintao was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party by Xi Jinping.[103][104] Under Xi, the Chinese government began large-scale efforts to reform its economy,[105][106] which has suffered from structural instabilities and slowing growth.[107][108][109][110] The Xi–Li Administration also announced major reforms to the one-child policy and prison system.[111]

Politics[edit]

File:ForbiddenCity MaoZedongPortrait (pixinn.net).jpg
Tiananmen with a portrait of Mao Zedong

China's constitution states that The People's Republic of China "is a socialist state under the people's democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants," and that the state organs "apply the principle of democratic centralism."[112] The PRC is one of the world's few remaining socialist states openly endorsing communism (see Ideology of the Communist Party of China). The Chinese government has been variously described as communist and socialist, but also as authoritarian and corporatist,[113] with heavy restrictions in many areas, most notably against free access to the Internet, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, the right to have children, free formation of social organizations and freedom of religion.[114] Its current political, ideological and economic system has been termed by its leaders as the "people's democratic dictatorship", "socialism with Chinese characteristics" (which is Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances) and the "socialist market economy" respectively.[115]

Communist Party[edit]

China's constitution declares that the country is ruled "under the leadership" of the Communist Party of China (CPC).[116] The electoral system is pyramidal. Local People's Congresses are directly elected, and higher levels of People's Congresses up to the National People's Congress (NPC) are indirectly elected by the People's Congress of the level immediately below.[117] The political system is decentralized, and provincial and sub-provincial leaders have a significant amount of autonomy.[118] Other political parties, referred to as democratic parties, have representatives in the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC).[119] China supports the Leninist principle of "democratic centralism",[120] but critics describe the elected National People's Congress as a "rubber stamp" body.[121]

Government[edit]

File:Great Hall Of The People At Night.JPG
The Great Hall of the People in Beijing, where the National People's Congress convenes
File:HammerSickle Tiananmen.jpg
Monument in Tiananmen Square marking the 90th anniversary of the CPC

The President of China is the titular head of state, serving as the ceremonial figurehead under National People's Congress. The Premier of China is the head of government, presiding over the State Council composed of four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions. The incumbent president is Xi Jinping, who is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's paramount leader.[103] The incumbent premier is Li Keqiang, who is also a senior member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee, China's de facto top decision-making body.[122]

There have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town levels.[123][124] However, the Party retains effective control over government appointments: in the absence of meaningful opposition, the CPC wins by default most of the time. Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption.[125][126] Nonetheless, the level of public support for the government and its management of the nation is high, with 80–95% of Chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the central government, according to a 2011 survey.[127]

Foreign relations[edit]

File:BRICS heads of state and government hold hands ahead of the 2014 G-20 summit in Brisbane, Australia.jpeg
Chinese President Xi Jinping holds hands with fellow BRICS leaders at the 2014 G20 Brisbane summit in Australia

The PRC has diplomatic relations with 174 countries and maintains embassies in 162. Its legitimacy is disputed by the Republic of China and a few other countries; it is thus the largest and most populous state with limited recognition. In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.[128] China was also a former member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate for developing countries.[129] Along with Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the BRICS group of emerging major economies and hosted the group's third official summit at Sanya, Hainan in April 2011.[130]

Under its interpretation of the One-China policy, Beijing has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties with the government of the Republic of China. Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,[131] especially in the matter of armament sales.[132]

Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.[133] This policy may have led China to support states that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations, such as Zimbabwe, North Korea and Iran.[134] China has a close economic and military relationship with Russia,[135] and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.[136][137][138]

File:Clinton and Biden meet Xi Jinping.jpg
Chinese President Xi Jinping with U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and Vice President Joe Biden, 14 February 2012

Trade relations[edit]

In recent decades, China has played an increasing role in calling for free trade areas and security pacts amongst its Asia-Pacific neighbours. China became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) on 11 December 2001. In 2004, it proposed an entirely new East Asia Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues.[139] The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. China is also a founding member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), along with Russia and the Central Asian republics.

In 2000, the United States Congress approved "permanent normal trade relations" (PNTR) with China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries.[140] China has a significant trade surplus with the United States, its most important export market.[141] In the early 2010s, US politicians argued that the Chinese yuan was significantly undervalued, giving China an unfair trade advantage.[142][143][144] In recent decades, China has followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation;[145][146][147] in 2012, Sino-African trade totalled over US$160 billion.[148] China has furthermore strengthened its ties with major South American economies, becoming the largest trading partner of Brazil and building strategic links with Argentina.[149][150]

Territorial disputes[edit]

File:China administrative.png
Map depicting territorial disputes between the PRC and neighbouring states. For a larger map, see here.

Ever since its establishment after the second Chinese Civil War, the PRC has claimed the territories governed by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity today commonly known as Taiwan, as a part of its territory. It regards the island of Taiwan as its Taiwan Province, Kinmen and Matsu as a part of Fujian Province and islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part of Hainan Province and Guangdong Province. These claims are controversial because of the complicated Cross-Strait relations, with the PRC treating the One-China policy as one of its most important diplomatic principles.[151]

In addition to Taiwan, China is also involved in other international territorial disputes. Since the 1990s, China has been involved in negotiations to resolve its disputed land borders, including a disputed border with India and an undefined border with Bhutan. China is additionally involved in multilateral disputes over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas, such as the Senkaku Islands and the Scarborough Shoal.[152][153] On 21 May 2014 Xi Jinping, speaking at a conference in Shanghai, pledged to settle China's territorial disputes peacefully. "China stays committed to seeking peaceful settlement of disputes with other countries over territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests", he said.[154]

Emerging superpower status[edit]

China is regularly hailed as a potential new superpower, with certain commentators citing its rapid economic progress, growing military might, very large population, and increasing international influence as signs that it will play a prominent global role in the 21st century.[4][155] Others, however, warn that economic bubbles and demographic imbalances could slow or even halt China's growth as the century progresses.[156][157] Some authors also question the definition of "superpower", arguing that China's large economy alone would not qualify it as a superpower, and noting that it lacks the military power and cultural influence of the United States.[158]

Sociopolitical issues, human rights and reform[edit]

The Chinese democracy movement, social activists, and some members of the Communist Party of China have all identified the need for social and political reform. While economic and social controls have been significantly relaxed in China since the 1970s, political freedom is still tightly restricted. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and property rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state.[159][160] Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling Communist Party are tolerated, censorship of political speech and information, most notably on the Internet,[161][162] are routinely used to prevent collective action.[163] In 2005, Reporters Without Borders ranked China 159th out of 167 states in its Annual World Press Freedom Index, indicating a very low level of press freedom.[164] In 2014, China ranked 175th out of 180 countries.[165]

Rural migrants to China's cities often find themselves treated as second-class citizens by the hukou household registration system, which controls access to state benefits.[166][167] Property rights are often poorly protected,[166] and taxation disproportionately affects poorer citizens.[167] However, a number of rural taxes have been reduced or abolished since the early 2000s, and additional social services provided to rural dwellers.[168][169]

File:On the 20th anniversary of 8964 (1).jpg
Candlelight vigil on the 20th anniversary of the Tiananmen Square protests

A number of foreign governments, foreign press agencies and NGOs also routinely criticize China's human rights record, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced abortions,[170] forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights,[114][171] and excessive use of the death penalty.[172][173] The government has suppressed popular protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to "social stability", as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.

Falun Gong was first taught publicly in 1992. In 1999, when there were 70 million practitioners,[174] the persecution of Falun Gong began, resulting in mass arrests, extralegal detention, and reports of torture and deaths in custody.[175][176] The Chinese state is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet and Xinjiang, including violent police crackdowns and religious suppression.[177][178]

The Chinese government has responded to foreign criticism by arguing that the right to subsistence and economic development is a prerequisite to other types of human rights, and that the notion of human rights should take into account a country's present level of economic development.[179] It emphasizes the rise in the Chinese standard of living, literacy rate and average life expectancy since the 1970s, as well as improvements in workplace safety and efforts to combat natural disasters such as the perennial Yangtze River floods.[179][180][181] Furthermore, some Chinese politicians have spoken out in support of democratization, although others remain more conservative.[182] Some major reform efforts have been conducted; for an instance in November 2013, the government announced plans to relax the one-child policy and abolish the much-criticized re-education through labour program,[111] though human rights groups note that reforms to the latter have been largely cosmetic.[175] During the 2000s and early 2010s, the Chinese government was increasingly tolerant of NGOs that offer practical, efficient solutions to social problems, but such "third sector" activity remained heavily regulated.[183][184]

Military[edit]

File:J-10a zhas.png
A PLAAF Chengdu J-10 fighter aircraft
File:Luyang II (Type 052C) Class Destroyer.JPG
The Lanzhou (DDG170), a Type 052C destroyer of the PLAN

With 2.3 million active troops, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest standing military force in the world, commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC).[185] The PLA consists of the Ground Force (PLAGF), the Navy (PLAN), the Air Force (PLAAF), and the People's Liberation Army Rocket Force (PLARF). According to the Chinese government, China's military budget for 2014 totalled US$132 billion, constituting the world's second-largest military budget.[186] However, many authorities – including SIPRI and the U.S. Office of the Secretary of Defense – argue that China does not report its real level of military spending, which is allegedly much higher than the official budget.[186][187]

As a recognized nuclear weapons state, China is considered both a major regional military power and a potential military superpower.[188] According to a 2013 report by the US Department of Defense, China fields between 50 and 75 nuclear ICBMs, along with a number of SRBMs.[189] However, compared with the other four UN Security Council Permanent Members, China has relatively limited power projection capabilities.[190] To offset this, it has developed numerous power projection assets since the early 2000s – its first aircraft carrier entered service in 2012,[191][192][193] and it maintains a substantial fleet of submarines, including several nuclear-powered attack and ballistic missile submarines.[194] China has furthermore established a network of foreign military relationships along critical sea lanes.[195]

China has made significant progress in modernising its air force in recent decades, purchasing Russian fighter jets such as the Sukhoi Su-30, and also manufacturing its own modern fighters, most notably the Chengdu J-10, J-20 and the Shenyang J-11, J-15, J-16, and J-31.[191][196] China is furthermore engaged in developing an indigenous stealth aircraft and numerous combat drones.[197][198][199] Air and Sea denial weaponry advances have increased the regional threat from the perspective of Japan as well as Washington.[200][201] China has also updated its ground forces, replacing its ageing Soviet-derived tank inventory with numerous variants of the modern Type 99 tank, and upgrading its battlefield C3I and C4I systems to enhance its network-centric warfare capabilities.[202] In addition, China has developed or acquired numerous advanced missile systems,[203][204] including anti-satellite missiles,[205] cruise missiles[206] and submarine-launched nuclear ICBMs.[207] According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute's data, China became the world's third largest exporter of major arms in 2010–14, an increase of 143 per cent from the period 2005–09.[208]

Science and technology[edit]

Historical[edit]

China was a world leader in science and technology until the Ming Dynasty. Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions), later became widespread in Asia and Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers.[209][210] However, by the 17th century, the Western world had surpassed China in scientific and technological development.[211] The causes of this Great Divergence continue to be debated.[212]

After repeated military defeats by Western nations in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning.[213] After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology was established as one of the Four Modernizations,[214] and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.[215]

Modern era[edit]

Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, China has made significant investments in scientific research,[216] with $163 billion spent on scientific research and development in 2012.[217] Science and technology are seen as vital for achieving China's economic and political goals, and are held as a source of national pride to a degree sometimes described as "techno-nationalism".[218] Nonetheless, China's investment in basic and applied scientific research remains behind that of leading technological powers such as the United States and Japan.[216][217] Chinese-born scientists have won the Nobel Prize in Physics four times, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and Physiology or Medicine once respectively, though most of these scientists conducted their Nobel-winning research in western nations.[lower-alpha 7]

File:The Launch of Long March 3B Rocket.jpg
The launch of a Chinese Long March 3B rocket

China is developing its education system with an emphasis on science, mathematics and engineering; in 2009, China graduated over 10,000 Ph.D. engineers, and as many as 500,000 BSc graduates, more than any other country.[224] China is also the world's second-largest publisher of scientific papers, producing 121,500 in 2010 alone, including 5,200 in leading international scientific journals.[225] Chinese technology companies such as Huawei and Lenovo have become world leaders in telecommunications and personal computing,[226][227][228] and Chinese supercomputers are consistently ranked among the world's most powerful.[229][230] China is also expanding its use of industrial robots; from 2008 to 2011, the installation of multi-role robots in Chinese factories rose by 136 percent.[231]

The Chinese space program is one of the world's most active, and is a major source of national pride.[232][233] In 1970, China launched its first satellite, Dong Fang Hong I, becoming the fifth country to do so independently.[234] In 2003, China became the third country to independently send humans into space, with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5; as of 2015, ten Chinese nationals have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China's first space station module, Tiangong-1, was launched, marking the first step in a project to assemble a large manned station by the early 2020s.[235] In 2013, China successfully landed the Chang'e 3 probe and Yutu rover onto the Moon; China plans to collect lunar soil samples by 2017.[236]

Demographics[edit]

File:PRC Population Density.svg
A 2009 population density map of the People's Republic of China. The eastern coastal provinces are much more densely populated than the western interior

The national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People's Republic of China as approximately 1,370,536,875. About 16.60% of the population were 14 years old or younger, 70.14% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 13.26% were over 60 years old.[237] The population growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0.46%.[238]

Although a middle-income country by Western standards, China's rapid growth has pulled hundreds of millions of its people out of poverty since 1978. Today, about 10% of the Chinese population lives below the poverty line of US$1 per day, down from 64% in 1978. In 2014, the urban unemployment rate of China was about 4.1%.[239][240]

With a population of over 1.3 billion and dwindling natural resources, the government of China is very concerned about its population growth rate and has attempted since 1979, with mixed results,[241] to implement a strict family planning policy, known as the "one-child policy." Before 2013, this policy sought to restrict families to one child each, with exceptions for ethnic minorities and a degree of flexibility in rural areas. A major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child.[242] In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of a two-child policy.[243] Data from the 2010 census implies that the total fertility rate may be around 1.4.[244]

File:Population and Natural Increase Rate of PRC.jpg
Population of China from 1949 to 2008[needs update]

The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may be contributing to an imbalance in the sex ratio at birth.[245][246] According to the 2010 census, the sex ratio at birth was 118.06 boys for every 100 girls,[247] which is beyond the normal range of around 105 boys for every 100 girls.[248] The 2010 census found that males accounted for 51.27 percent of the total population.[247] However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.82 percent of the total population.[247]

Ethnic groups[edit]

File:China Post logo with (New) Tai Lü script in Mohan, Yunnan.jpg
A trilingual sign in Sibsongbanna, with Tai Lü language on the top.

China officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, the largest of which are the Han Chinese, who constitute about 91.51% of the total population.[249] The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group[250] – outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial-level division except Tibet and Xinjiang.[251] Ethnic minorities account for about 8.49% of the population of China, according to the 2010 census.[249] Compared with the 2000 population census, the Han population increased by 66,537,177 persons, or 5.74%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 7,362,627 persons, or 6.92%.[249] The 2010 census recorded a total of 593,832 foreign citizens living in China. The largest such groups were from South Korea (120,750), the United States (71,493) and Japan (66,159).[252]

Languages[edit]

File:China linguistic map.jpg
1990 map of Chinese ethnolinguistic groups

There are as many as 292 living languages in China.[253] The languages most commonly spoken belong to the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, which contains Mandarin (spoken natively by 70% of the population),[254] and other Chinese varieties: Yue (including Cantonese and Taishanese), Wu (including Shanghainese and Suzhounese), Min (including Fuzhounese, Hokkien and Teochew), Xiang, Gan and Hakka. Languages of the Tibeto-Burman branch, including Tibetan, Qiang, Naxi and Yi, are spoken across the Tibetan and Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau. Other ethnic minority languages in southwest China include Zhuang, Thai, Dong and Sui of the Tai-Kadai family, Miao and Yao of the Hmong–Mien family, and Wa of the Austroasiatic family. Across northeastern and northwestern China, minority ethnic groups speak Altaic languages including Manchu, Mongolian and several Turkic languages: Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Salar and Western Yugur. Korean is spoken natively along the border with North Korea. Sarikoli, the language of Tajiks in western Xinjiang, is an Indo-European language. Taiwanese aborigines, including a small population on the mainland, speak Austronesian languages.[255]

Standard Mandarin, a variety of Mandarin based on the Beijing dialect, is the official national language of China and is used as a lingua franca in the country between people of different linguistic backgrounds.[256]

Chinese characters have been used as the written script for the Sinitic languages for thousands of years. They allow speakers of mutually unintelligible Chinese varieties to communicate with each other through writing. In 1956, the government introduced simplified characters, which have supplanted the older traditional characters in mainland China. Chinese characters are romanized using the Pinyin system. Tibetan uses an alphabet based on an Indic script. Uyghur is most commonly written in a Perseo-Arabic script. The Mongolian script used in China and the Manchu script are both derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet. Modern Zhuang uses the Latin alphabet.

Urbanization[edit]

File:China Top 10 Biggest Cities.png
Map of the ten largest cities in China (2010)

China has urbanized significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 50% in 2014.[257][258][259] It is estimated that China's urban population will reach one billion by 2030, potentially equivalent to one-eighth of the world population.[257][258] As of 2012, there are more than 262 million migrant workers in China, mostly rural migrants seeking work in cities.[260]

China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million,[261] including the seven megacities (cities with a population of over 10 million) of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou, Tianjin, Shenzhen, and Wuhan.[262][263][264] By 2025, it is estimated that the country will be home to 221 cities with over a million inhabitants.[257] The figures in the table below are from the 2010 census,[265] and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban and rural populations). The large "floating populations" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;[266] the figures below include only long-term residents.

Education[edit]

File:Tsinghua University - Grand auditorium.JPG
Beijing's Tsinghua University, one of the top-ranked universities in China[267]

Since 1986, compulsory education in China comprises primary and junior secondary school, which together last for nine years.[268] In 2010, about 82.5 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school.[269] The Gaokao, China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. In 2010, 27 percent of secondary school graduates are enrolled in higher education.[270] Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and tertiary level.[271]

In February 2006, the government pledged to provide completely free nine-year education, including textbooks and fees.[272] Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$250 billion in 2011.[273] However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while in Guizhou, one of the poorest provinces in China, only totalled ¥3,204.[274] Free compulsory education in China consists of primary school and junior secondary school between the ages of 6 and 15. In 2011, around 81.4% of Chinese have received secondary education.[275] By 2007, there were 396,567 primary schools, 94,116 secondary schools, and 2,236 higher education institutions in China.[276]

As of 2010, 94% of the population over age 15 are literate,[277] compared to only 20% in 1950.[278] In 2009, Chinese students from Shanghai achieved the world's best results in mathematics, science and literacy, as tested by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a worldwide evaluation of 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance.[279] Despite the high results, Chinese education has also faced both native and international criticism for its emphasis on rote memorization and its gap in quality from rural to urban areas.

Health[edit]

File:China Human Dev SVG.svg
Chart showing the rise of China's Human Development Index from 1970 to 2010

The National Health and Family Planning Commission, together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the Chinese population.[280] An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. At that time, the Communist Party started the Patriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as cholera, typhoid and scarlet fever, which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign. After Deng Xiaoping began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared along with the People's Communes. Healthcare in China became mostly privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a 3-year large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion.[281] By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance coverage.[282] In 2011, China was estimated to be the world's third-largest supplier of pharmaceuticals, but its population has suffered from the development and distribution of counterfeit medications.[283]

As of 2012, the average life expectancy at birth in China is 75 years,[284] and the infant mortality rate is 12 per thousand.[285] Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.[lower-alpha 8] Rates of stunting, a condition caused by malnutrition, have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010.[288] Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by widespread air pollution,[289] hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers,[290] and an increase in obesity among urban youths.[291][292] China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in recent years, such as the 2003 outbreak of SARS, although this has since been largely contained.[293] In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China.[294]

Religion[edit]

Freedom of religion is guaranteed by China's constitution, although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution.[171][295] The government of the People's Republic of China is officially atheist. Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the State Administration for Religious Affairs.[296]

Over the millennia, Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The "three teachings", including Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism (Chinese Buddhism), historically have a significant role in shaping Chinese culture,[297][298] Chinese folk religion, which contains elements of the three teachings,[299] consists in allegiance to the shen (神), a character that signifies the "energies of generation", who can be deities of the natural environment or ancestral principles of human groups, concepts of civility, culture heroes, many of whom feature in Chinese mythology and history.[300] Among the most popular folk cults are those of Mazu (goddess of the seas),[301][302] Huangdi (one of the two divine patriarchs of the Chinese race),[301][303] Guandi (god of war and business), Caishen (god of prosperity and richness), Pangu and many others. China is home to many of the world's tallest religious statues, including the tallest of all, the Spring Temple Buddha in Henan.

Clear data on religious affiliation in China is difficult to gather due to varying definitions on "religion" and the unorganized nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note that in China there is no clear boundary between religions, especially Buddhism, Taoism and local folk religious practice.[297] A 2015 poll conducted by Gallup International found that 61% of Chinese people self-identified as "convinced atheist".[304] According to one study from 2012, about 90% of the Chinese population are either nonreligious or practice some form of Chinese folk religions, Taoism and Confucianism.[305] Approximately 6% are Buddhists, 2% are Christians, and 1% are Muslims.[305] In addition to Han people's local religious practices, there are also various ethnic minority groups in China who maintain their traditional autochthone religions. Various sects of indigenous origin comprise 2—3% of the population, while Confucianism as a religious self-designation is popular among intellectuals. Significant faiths specifically connected to certain ethnic groups include Tibetan Buddhism and the Islamic religion of the Hui and Uyghur peoples.

Temple of the Great Buddha in Midong, Urumqi, Xinjiang. China has many of the tallest statues in the world, and most of them represent deities and buddhas.
Xuanyuan Temple in Huangling, Yan'an, Shaanxi, dedicated to the worship of the Yellow Emperor (said to be the ancestor of all Chinese) at the ideal sacred centre of China.[lower-alpha 9]
Temple of Guandi in Chaoyang, Liaoning. Religion in Northeast China is characterised by the interaction of folk religions of Chinese and Manchus (Manchu folk religion). Confucian religious movements like Shanrendao are widespread.
Taoists of the Zhengyi order bowing during a rite at the White Cloud Temple of Shanghai. Taoism is a set of orders of philosophy and rite that operate as frameworks of Chinese religion, alongside vernacular ritual traditions.
Larung Gar Academy of Tibetan Buddhism in Sêrtar, Garzê, Sichuan. Founded in the 1980s, it is now the largest monastic institution in the world, with about 40,000 members of which 1/10 Han Chinese.
The City of the Eight Symbols in Qi, Hebi, is the headquarters of the Weixinist Church in Henan. Weixinism is a 21st-century renewal movement of Chinese religion and philosophy.

Culture[edit]

File:11 Temple of Heaven.jpg
The Temple of Heaven, a center of heaven worship and an UNESCO World Heritage site, symbolizes the Interactions Between Heaven and Mankind.[307]

Since ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism and conservative philosophies. For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious imperial examinations, which have their origins in the Han Dynasty.[308] The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that calligraphy, poetry and painting were higher forms of art than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national perspective.[4] Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today.[309]

The first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial order, but were influenced by the May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals. They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and the Confucian system of education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the state. Some observers see the period following the establishment of the PRC in 1949 as a continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others claim that the Communist Party's rule has damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, where many aspects of traditional culture were destroyed, having been denounced as "regressive and harmful" or "vestiges of feudalism". Many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, art, literature, and performing arts like Peking opera,[310] were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time. Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted.[311]

Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival,[312][313] and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide.[314] China is now the third-most-visited country in the world,[315] with 55.7 million inbound international visitors in 2010.[316] It also experiences an enormous volume of domestic tourism; an estimated 740 million Chinese holidaymakers travelled within the country in October 2012 alone.[317]

Literature[edit]

File:Pekin przedstawienie tradycjnego teatru chinskiego 7.JPG
The stories in Journey to the West are common themes in Peking opera

Chinese literature is based on the literature of the Zhou dynasty.[318] Concepts covered within the Chinese classic texts present a wide range of thoughts and subjects including calendar, military, astrology, herbology, geography and many others.[319] Some of the most important early texts include the I Ching and the Shujing within the Four Books and Five Classics which served as the Confucian authoritative books for the state-sponsored curriculum in dynastic era.[320] Inherited from the Classic of Poetry, classical Chinese poetry developed to its floruit during the Tang dynasty. Li Bai and Du Fu opened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively.[321] Chinese historiography began with the Shiji, the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the Twenty-Four Histories, which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along with Chinese mythology and folklore.[322] Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty, Chinese classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical, town and gods and demons fictions as represented by the Four Great Classical Novels which include Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West and Dream of the Red Chamber.[323] Along with the wuxia fictions of Jin Yong and Liang Yusheng,[324] it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the East Asian cultural sphere.[325]

In the wake of the New Culture Movement after the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese literature embarked on a new era with written vernacular Chinese for ordinary citizens. Hu Shih and Lu Xun were pioneers in modern literature.[326] Various literary genres, such as misty poetry, scar literature, young adult fiction and the xungen literature, which is influenced by magic realism,[327] emerged following the Cultural Revolution. Mo Yan, a xungen literature author, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012.[328]

Cuisine[edit]

File:Chinese foods from different regional cuisines.jpg
Chinese foods originated from different regional cuisines: laziji from Sichuan in the west, xiaolongbao from Jiangsu in the east, rice noodle roll from Cantonese in the south and Peking duck from Shandong in the north.[329]

Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety, in which the most influential are known as the "Eight Major Cuisines", including Sichuan, Cantonese, Jiangsu, Shandong, Fujian, Hunan, Anhui, and Zhejiang cuisines.[330] All of them are featured by the precise skills of shaping, heating, colorway and flavoring.[331] Chinese cuisine is also known for its width of cooking methods and ingredients,[332] as well as food therapy that is emphasized by traditional Chinese medicine.[333] Generally, China's staple food is rice in the south, wheat based breads and noodles in the north. The diet of the common people in pre-modern times was largely grain and simple vegetables, with meat reserved for special occasions. And the bean products, such as tofu and soy milk, remain as a popular source of protein.[334] Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the country's total meat consumption.[335] While there is also a Buddhist cuisine and an Islamic cuisine.[336] Southern cuisine, due to the area's proximity to the ocean and milder climate, has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables; it differs in many respects from the wheat-based diets across dry northern China. Numerous offshoots of Chinese food, such as Hong Kong cuisine and American Chinese food, have emerged in the nations that play host to the Chinese diaspora.

Sports[edit]

File:Dragon boat racing.jpg
Dragon boat racing, a popular traditional Chinese sport

China has become a prime sports destination worldwide. The country gained the hosting rights for several major global sports tournaments including the 2008 Summer Olympics, the 2015 World Championships in Athletics and the upcoming 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup.

China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world. There is evidence that archery (shèjiàn) was practiced during the Western Zhou Dynasty. Swordplay (jiànshù) and cuju, a sport loosely related to association football[337] date back to China's early dynasties as well.[338]

Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such as qigong and t'ai chi ch'uan widely practiced,[339] and commercial gyms and fitness clubs gaining popularity in the country.[340] Basketball is currently the most popular spectator sport in China.[341] The Chinese Basketball Association and the American National Basketball Association have a huge following among the people, with native or ethnic Chinese players such as Yao Ming and Yi Jianlian held in high esteem.[342] China's professional football league, now known as Chinese Super League, was established in 1994, it is the largest football market in Asia.[343] Other popular sports in the country include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, swimming and snooker. Board games such as go (known as wéiqí in Chinese), xiangqi, mahjong, and more recently chess, are also played at a professional level.[344] In addition, China is home to a huge number of cyclists, with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012.[345] Many more traditional sports, such as dragon boat racing, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are also popular.[346]

China has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC since 1952. China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, where its athletes received 51 gold medals – the highest number of gold medals of any participating nation that year.[347] China also won the most medals of any nation at the 2012 Summer Paralympics, with 231 overall, including 95 gold medals.[348][349] In 2011, Shenzhen in Guangdong, China hosted the 2011 Summer Universiade. China hosted the 2013 East Asian Games in Tianjin and the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics in Nanjing.

See also[edit]

Footnotes[edit]

<templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />

  1. "[...] Next vnto this, is found the great China, whose kyng is thought to bee the greatest prince in the worlde, and is named Santoa Raia".[6][7]
  2. "[...] The Very Great Kingdom of China".[8] (Portuguese: [...O Grande Reino da China...] error: [undefined] error: {{lang}}: no text (help): text has italic markup (help)).[9]
  3. Eden used the now obsolete form Chinish: "...whence the Chinishe nation haue theyr prouision for shppyng..."[12]
  4. Although this is the present meaning of guó, in Old Chinese (when its pronunciation was something like /*qʷˤək/)[16] it meant the walled city of the Chinese and the areas they could control from them.[18]
  5. Its use is attested from the 6th-century Classic of History, which states "Huangtian bestowed the lands and the peoples of the central state to the ancestors" (皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王).[19]
  6. Owing to the First Emperor's earlier policy involving the "burning of books and burying of scholars", the destruction of the confiscated copies at Xianyang was an event similar to the destructions of the Library of Alexandria in the west. Even those texts that did survive had to be painstakingly reconstructed from memory, luck, or forgery.[42] The Old Texts of the Five Classics were said to have been found hidden in a wall at the Kong residence in Qufu. Mei Ze's "rediscovered" edition of the Book of Documents was only shown to be a forgery in the Qing dynasty.
  7. Tsung-Dao Lee,[219] Chen Ning Yang,[219] Daniel C. Tsui,[220] Charles K. Kao,[221] Yuan T. Lee,[222] Tu Youyou[223]
  8. The national life expectancy at birth rose from about 31 years in 1949 to 75 years in 2008,[286] and infant mortality decreased from 300 per thousand in the 1950s to around 33 per thousand in 2001.[287]
  9. The Yellow Emperor (Huangdi 黄帝) is often presented as the ancestor of both Chinese people and Chinese civilization. In Chinese religion, he embodies or grasps the axis mundi (Kunlun Mountain), the hub of creation, identifying with the spring of the universe (天 Tiān).[306]

References[edit]

<templatestyles src="Reflist/styles.css" />

  1. "China Population" [archive]. www.worldometers.info. 15 March 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2016.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  2. Shambaugh (2008), p. 3 etc. [archive].
  3. Muldavin, Joshua (9 February 2006). "From Rural Transformation to Global Integration: The Environmental and Social Impacts of China's Rise to Superpower" [archive]. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved 17 January 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  4. 4.0 4.1 4.2 "A Point Of View: What kind of superpower could China be?" [archive]. BBC. 19 October 2012. Retrieved 21 October 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  5. 5.0 5.1 Bilik, Naran (2015), "Reconstructing China beyond Homogeneity", Patriotism in East Asia, Political Theories in East Asian Context, Abingdon: Routledge, p. 105 [archive]<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  6. Eden, Richard (1555), Decades of the New World, p. 230 [archive].
  7. Myers, Henry Allen (1984). Western Views of China and the Far East, Volume 1. Asian Research Service. p. 34.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  8. Dames, Mansel Longworth, ed. (1918), The Book of Duarte Barbosa, Vol. II [archive], London, p. 211 [archive]<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  9. Barbosa, Duarte (1946), Livro em que dá Relação do que Viu e Ouviu no Oriente [archive], Lisbon, archived from the original [archive] on 3 March 2009 Cite uses deprecated parameter |deadurl= (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>. (in Portuguese)
  10. "China" in the Oxford English Dictionary (1989). ISBN 0-19-957315-8.
  11. "-ese, suffix", and "Chinese, adj. and n.", in the Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  12. Eden, Richard in R. Willes (1577). The History of Trauayle in the West and East Indies, p. 260
  13. "China [archive]". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2000). Boston and New York: Houghton-Mifflin.
  14. 14.0 14.1 Wade, Geoff. "The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name 'China' [archive]". Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 188, May 2009, p. 20.
  15. Martino, Martin, Novus Atlas Sinensis, Vienna 1655, Preface, p. 2.
  16. 16.0 16.1 Baxter-Sagart.
  17. Liu, Lydia He (2009). The Clash of Empires: the invention of China in modern world making. Harvard University Press. pp. 77–78. ISBN 9780674040298. Olivelle's evidence affirms that cīna is related to the Qin dynasty but leaves the precise nature of that linkage open to speculation.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  18. 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Wilkinson, Endymion (2000), Chinese History: A Manual [archive], Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph No. 52, Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, p. 132 [archive]<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  19. 《尚書》, 梓材. (in Chinese)
  20. Tang, Xiaoyang (2010). Guo, Sujian; Guo, Baogang (eds.). Greater China in an Era of Globalization. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 52–53. ISBN 978-0-7391-3534-1.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  21. Challen, Paul (2005). Life in ancient China. New York: Crabtree Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-7787-2037-9.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  22. Hui-Ching Chang; et al., Language, Politics, and Identity in Taiwan: Naming China [archive], Routledge Research on Taiwan, Abingdon: Routledge, p. 220 [archive]<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  23. Garver, John W. (April 1997). The Sino-American Alliance: Nationalist China and American Cold War Strategy in Asia. M.E. Sharp. ISBN 978-0-7656-0025-7.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  24. "Early Homo erectus Tools in China" [archive]. Archaeological Institute of America. 2000. Retrieved 30 November 2012.
  25. "The Peking Man World Heritage Site at Zhoukoudian" [archive]. UNESCO. Retrieved 6 March 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  26. Shen, G; Gao, X; Gao, B; Granger, De (Mar 2009). "Age of Zhoukoudian Homo erectus determined with (26)Al/(10)Be burial dating". Nature. 458 (7235): 198–200. Bibcode:2009Natur.458..198S [archive]. doi:10.1038/nature07741 [archive]. ISSN 0028-0836 [archive]. PMID 19279636 [archive].<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  27. "Fossil teeth place humans in Asia '20,000 years early'" [archive]. BBC News. Retrieved 14 October 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  28. 28.0 28.1 Rincon, Paul (17 April 2003). "'Earliest writing' found in China" [archive]. BBC News.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  29. Qiu Xigui (2000). Chinese Writing. English translation of 文字學概論 by Gilbert L. Mattos and Jerry Norman. Early China Special Monograph Series No. 4. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. ISBN 978-1-55729-071-7.
  30. Tanner, Harold M. (2009). China: A History [archive]. Hackett Publishing. pp. 35–36. ISBN 0872209156.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  31. "Bronze Age China" [archive]. National Gallery of Art. Retrieved 11 July 2013.
  32. China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization [archive]. City University of HK Press. 2007. p. 25. ISBN 9789629371401.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  33. Pletcher, Kenneth (2011). The History of China [archive]. Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 35. ISBN 9781615301812.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  34. Fowler, Jeaneane D.; Fowler, Merv (2008). Chinese Religions: Beliefs and Practices [archive]. Sussex Academic Press. p. 17. ISBN 9781845191726.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  35. William G. Boltz, Early Chinese Writing, World Archaeology, Vol. 17, No. 3, Early Writing Systems. (Feb. 1986), pp. 420–436 (436).
  36. David N. Keightley, "Art, Ancestors, and the Origins of Writing in China", Representations, No. 56, Special Issue: The New Erudition. (Autumn, 1996), pp.68–95 (68).
  37. Hollister, Pam (1996). "Zhengzhou" [archive]. In Schellinger, Paul E.; Salkin, Robert M. (eds.). International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. p. 904. ISBN 9781884964046.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  38. Allan, Keith (2013). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics [archive]. Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 9780199585847.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  39. Sima Qian, Translated by Burton Watson. Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty I, p. 11-12. ISBN 0-231-08165-0.
  40. 40.0 40.1 Bodde, Derk. (1986). "The State and Empire of Ch'in", in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24327-0.
  41. 41.0 41.1 Lewis, Mark Edward (2007). The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. London: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02477-9.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  42. Cotterell, Arthur (2011), The Imperial Capitals of China, Pimlico, pp. 35–36 [archive]<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  43. "Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st century" [archive]. World Bank Publications via Eric.ed.gov. Retrieved 22 October 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  44. Goucher, Candice; Walton, Linda (2013). World History: Journeys from Past to Present – Volume 1: From Human Origins to 1500 CE [archive]. Routledge. p. 108. ISBN 9781135088224.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  45. Whiting, Marvin C. (2002). Imperial Chinese Military History. iUniverse. p. 214
  46. Ki-Baik Lee (1984). A new history of Korea. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-61576-2. p.47.
  47. David Andrew Graff (2002). Medieval Chinese warfare, 300–900. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23955-9. p.13.
  48. Adshead, S. A. M. (2004). T'ang China: The Rise of the East in World History. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 54
  49. Nishijima, Sadao (1986), "The Economic and Social History of Former Han", in Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.), Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 545–607, ISBN 0-521-24327-0<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  50. City University of HK Press (2007). China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization. ISBN 962-937-140-5. p.71
  51. Paludan, Ann (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05090-2. p. 136.
  52. Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods [archive]. Greenwood Publishing Group. 1999. p. 3. ISBN 9780313264498.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  53. "Northern Song dynasty (960–1127)" [archive]. Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 27 November 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  54. "从汝窑、修内司窑和郊坛窑的技术传承看宋代瓷业的发展" [archive]. wanfangdata.com.cn. 15 February 2011. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
  55. Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276. Stanford University Press. 1962. p. 22. ISBN 0-8047-0720-0.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  56. Ping-ti Ho. "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in Études Song, Series 1, No 1, (1970). pp. 33–53.
  57. Rice, Xan (25 July 2010). "Chinese archaeologists' African quest for sunken ship of Ming admiral" [archive]. The Guardian. London.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  58. "Wang Yangming (1472—1529)" [archive]. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 9 December 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  59. "论明末士人阶层与资本主义萌芽的关系" [archive]. docin.com. 8 April 2012. Retrieved 2 September 2015.
  60. John M. Roberts (1997). A Short History of the World [archive]. Oxford University Press. p. 272. ISBN 0-19-511504-X.
  61. The Cambridge History of China: Volume 10, Part 1, by John K. Fairbank, p37
  62. 中国通史·明清史. 九州出版社. 2010. pp. 104–112. ISBN 978-7-5108-0062-7.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  63. 中华通史·第十卷. 花城出版社. 1996. p. 71. ISBN 978-7-5360-2320-8.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  64. Ainslie Thomas Embree, Carol Gluck (1997). Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching [archive]. M.E. Sharpe. p.597. ISBN 1-56324-265-6.
  65. "Sino-Japanese War (1894–95)" [archive]. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 12 November 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  66. "Dimensions of need – People and populations at risk" [archive]. 1995. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Retrieved 3 July 2013.
  67. Eileen Tamura (1997). China: Understanding Its Past. Volume 1. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1923-3. p.146.
  68. Stephen Haw, (2006). Beijing: A Concise History. Taylor & Francis, ISBN 0-415-39906-8. p.143.
  69. Bruce Elleman (2001). Modern Chinese Warfare. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-21474-2. p.149.
  70. Graham Hutchings (2003). Modern China: A Guide to a Century of Change. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01240-2. p.459.
  71. Peter Zarrow (2005). China in War and Revolution, 1895–1949. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-36447-7. p.230.
  72. M. Leutner (2002). The Chinese Revolution in the 1920s: Between Triumph and Disaster. Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1690-4. p.129.
  73. Hung-Mao Tien (1972). Government and Politics in Kuomintang China, 1927–1937 (Volume 53). Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0812-6. pp. 60–72.
  74. Suisheng Zhao (2000). China and Democracy: Reconsidering the Prospects for a Democratic China. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-92694-7. p.43.
  75. David Ernest Apter, Tony Saich (1994). Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-76780-2. p.198.
  76. "Nuclear Power: The End of the War Against Japan" [archive]. BBC — History. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
  77. "Judgement: International Military Tribunal for the Far East" [archive]. Chapter VIII: Conventional War Crimes (Atrocities). November 1948. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
  78. Doenecke, Justus D.; Stoler, Mark A. (2005). Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policies, 1933–1945 [archive]. Rowman & Littlefield.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  79. "The Moscow Declaration on general security". Yearbook of the United Nations 1946–1947 [archive]. Lake Success, NY: United Nations. 1947. p. 3. OCLC 243471225 [archive]. Retrieved 25 April 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  80. "Declaration by United Nations" [archive]. United Nations. Retrieved 20 June 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  81. Hoopes, Townsend, and Douglas Brinkley. FDR and the Creation of the U.N. (Yale University Press, 1997)
  82. Gaddis, John Lewis (1972). The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947. Columbia University Press. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-231-12239-9.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  83. Tien, Hung-mao (1991). "Constitutional Reform and the Future of the Republic of China" [archive]. In Feldman, Harvey (ed.). Constitutional Reform and the Future of the Republic of China. M.E. Sharpe. p. 3. ISBN 9780873328807.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  84. "The Chinese people have stood up" [archive]. UCLA Center for East Asian Studies. Archived from the original [archive] on 18 February 2009. Retrieved 16 April 2006.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  85. "Red Capture of Hainan Island" [archive]. The Tuscaloosa News. Google News Archive. 9 May 1950. Retrieved 20 July 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  86. "The Tibetans" [archive] (PDF). University of Southern California. Retrieved 20 July 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  87. John W. Garver (1997). The Sino-American alliance: Nationalist China and American Cold War strategy in Asia [archive]. M.E. Sharpe. p. 169. ISBN 0-7656-0025-0. Retrieved 20 July 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  88. Busky, Donald F. (2002). Communism in History and Theory [archive]. Greenwood Publishing Group. p.11.
  89. "A Country Study: China" [archive]. lcweb2.loc.gov. Retrieved 24 July 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  90. Madelyn Holmes (2008). Students and teachers of the new China: thirteen interviews [archive]. McFarland. p. 185. ISBN 0-7864-3288-8. Retrieved 7 November 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  91. Akbar, Arifa (17 September 2010). "Mao's Great Leap Forward 'killed 45 million in four years'" [archive]. The Independent. London. Retrieved 30 October 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  92. Michael Y.M. Kao. "Taiwan's and Beijing's Campaigns for Unification" in Harvey Feldman and Michael Y. M. Kao (eds., 1988): Taiwan in a Time of Transition. New York: Paragon House. p.188.
  93. Hart-Landsberg, Martin; and Burkett, Paul. "China and Socialism: Market Reforms and Class Struggle" [archive]. Monthly Review. Retrieved 30 October 2008.
  94. "The Impact of Tiananmen on China's Foreign Policy" [archive]. The National Bureau of Asian Research. Retrieved 28 November 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  95. Nation bucks trend of global poverty [archive]. China Daily. 11 July 2003. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
  96. China's Average Economic Growth in 90s Ranked 1st in World [archive]. People's Daily. 1 March 2000. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
  97. "China's Environmental Crisis" [archive]. New York Times. 26 August 2007. Retrieved 16 May 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  98. China worried over pace of growth [archive]. BBC. Retrieved 16 April 2006.
  99. China: Migrants, Students, Taiwan [archive]. Migration News. January 2006.
  100. In Face of Rural Unrest, China Rolls Out Reforms [archive]. Washington Post. 28 January 2006.
  101. "Frontline: The Tank Man transcript" [archive]. Frontline. PBS. 11 April 2006. Retrieved 12 July 2008.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  102. "Bo Xilai scandal: Timeline" [archive]. BBC. 5 September 2012. Retrieved 11 September 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  103. 103.0 103.1 Moore, Malcolm (15 November 2012). "Xi Jinping crowned new leader of China Communist Party" [archive]. The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 15 November 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  104. "New China leadership tipped to be all male" [archive]. Stuff.co.nz. 6 November 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  105. "China frees up bank lending rates" [archive]. BBC. 19 July 2013. Retrieved 19 July 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  106. Evans-Pritchard, Ambrose (23 July 2013). "China eyes fresh stimulus as economy stalls, sets 7pc growth floor" [archive]. Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 25 July 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  107. "The decade of Xi Jinping" [archive]. Financial Times. 25 November 2012. Retrieved 27 November 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  108. "China sees both industrial output and retail sales rise" [archive]. BBC. 9 December 2012. Retrieved 9 December 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  109. "China's exports and imports decline" [archive]. BBC. 10 July 2013. Retrieved 10 July 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  110. "China orders government debt audit" [archive]. BBC. 29 July 2013. Retrieved 29 July 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  111. 111.0 111.1 "China ends one child policy" [archive]. Slate. 15 November 2013. Retrieved 16 November 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  112. Chapter 1, Articles !, 3 Constitution of the People's Republic of China [archive]
  113. Unger, Jonathan; Chan, Anita (January 1995). "China, Corporatism, and the East Asian Model". The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs (33): 29–53. doi:10.2307/2950087 [archive].<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  114. 114.0 114.1 "Freedom in the World 2011: China" [archive]. Freedom House. 2011. Retrieved 19 June 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  115. "Xi reiterates adherence to socialism with Chinese characteristics" [archive]. Xinhua. 5 January 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  116. "Constitution of the People's Republic of China" [archive]. People's Daily. Retrieved 14 July 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  117. Article 97 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China
  118. "CFR.org" [archive]. CFR.org. Retrieved 27 April 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  119. "Democratic Parties" [archive]. People's Daily. Retrieved 8 December 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  120. Constitution of the People's Republic of China. (1982)
  121. "BBC, Country Report: China" [archive]. BBC News. Retrieved 14 July 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  122. Shirk, Susan (13 November 2012). "China's Next Leaders: A Guide to What's at Stake" [archive]. China File. Retrieved 31 May 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  123. "Beijingers Get Greater Poll Choices" [archive]. China Daily. 2003. Retrieved 18 February 2007.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  124. Lohmar, Bryan; and Somwaru, Agapi; Does China's Land-Tenure System Discourage Structural Adjustment? [archive]. 1 May 2006. USDA Economic Research Service. Retrieved 3 May 2006.
  125. "China sounds alarm over fast-growing gap between rich and poor" [archive]. Associated Press via Highbeam (subscription required to see full article). 11 May 2002. Retrieved 1 February 2013.
  126. Hasmath, R. (2012) "Red China's Iron Grip on Power: Communist Party Continues Repression [archive]", The Washington Times, 12 November, p. B4.
  127. "A Point Of View: Is China more legitimate than the West?" [archive]. BBC News. 2 November 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  128. Chang, Eddy (22 August 2004). Perseverance will pay off at the UN [archive], The Taipei Times.
  129. "China says communication with other developing countries at Copenhagen summit transparent" [archive]. People's Daily. 21 December 2009. Retrieved 20 August 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  130. "BRICS summit ends in China" [archive]. BBC. 14 April 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
  131. "Taiwan's Ma to stopover in US: report" [archive]. mysinchew.com. 12 January 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  132. Macartney, Jane (1 February 2010). "China says US arms sales to Taiwan could threaten wider relations" [archive]. The Times. London.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  133. Keith, Ronald C. China from the inside out – fitting the People's republic into the world. PlutoPress. pp. 135–136.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  134. "An Authoritarian Axis Rising?" [archive]. The Diplomat. 29 June 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  135. "China, Russia launch largest ever joint military exercise" [archive]. Deutsche Welle. 5 July 2013. Retrieved 5 July 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  136. "Energy to dominate Russia President Putin's China visit" [archive]. BBC. 5 June 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  137. Gladstone, Rick (19 July 2012). "Friction at the U.N. as Russia and China Veto Another Resolution on Syria Sanctions" [archive]. New York Times. Retrieved 15 November 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  138. "Xi Jinping: Russia-China ties 'guarantee world peace'" [archive]. BBC. 23 March 2013. Retrieved 23 March 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  139. Dillon, Dana; and Tkacik, John, Jr.; China's Quest for Asia [archive]. Policy Review. December 2005 and January 2006. Issue No. 134. Retrieved 22 April 2006.
  140. "Clinton signs China trade bill" [archive]. CNN. 10 October 2000. Archived from the original [archive] on 5 May 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  141. "US trade gap widens on increased Chinese imports [archive]". BBC News. 14 October 2010.
  142. "Chinese President Hu Jintao resists Obama calls on yuan [archive]". BBC News. 13 April 2010.
  143. Palmer, Doug (24 September 2012). "Obama should call China a currency manipulator: Romney aide" [archive]. Reuters. Retrieved 6 October 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  144. "US says China not a currency manipulator" [archive]. BBC. 27 November 2012. Retrieved 28 November 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  145. McLaughlin, Abraham; "A rising China counters US clout in Africa" [archive]. Christian Science Monitor. 30 March 2005.
  146. Lyman, Princeton N.; "China's Rising Role in Africa" [archive]. 21 July 2005. Council of Foreign Relations. Retrieved 26 June 2007.
  147. Politzer, Malia. "China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration" [archive]. Migration Information Source. August 2008. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
  148. "China-Africa trade likely to hit record high" [archive]. China Daily. 28 December 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  149. "Is Brazil a derivative of China?" [archive]. Forbes.com. 24 August 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
  150. "China, Argentina agree to further strategic ties" [archive]. Xinhua.com. 9 September 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
  151. "Chinese Civil War" [archive]. Cultural-China.com. Archived from the original [archive] on 12 September 2013. Retrieved 16 June 2013. To this day, since no armistice or peace treaty has ever been signed, there is controversy as to whether the Civil War has legally ended.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  152. "China denies preparing war over South China Sea shoal" [archive]. BBC. 12 May 2012.
  153. "Q&A: China-Japan islands row" [archive]. BBC News. 27 November 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  154. "Asian nations should avoid military ties with third party powers, says China's Xi" [archive]. China National News. Retrieved 21 May 2014. Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  155. Watts, Jonathan (18 June 2012). "China: witnessing the birth of a superpower" [archive]. The Guardian. London. Retrieved 6 March 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  156. Sanders, Sol (29 June 2007). "China's utterly distorted economy is a train wreck waiting to happen" [archive]. World Tribune. Retrieved 27 March 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  157. "Broken BRICs: Why the Rest Stopped Rising" [archive]. Foreign Affairs. November 2012. Retrieved 19 December 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  158. Grinin, Leonid. "Chinese Joker in the World Pack" [archive]. Journal of Globalization Studies. Volume 2, Number 2. November 2011. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
  159. Sorman, Guy (2008). Empire of Lies: The Truth About China in the Twenty-First Century [archive]. pp. 46, 152.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  160. "World Report 2009: China" [archive]. Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 14 July 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  161. "China Requires Internet Users to Register Names" [archive]. AP via My Way News. 28 December 2012. Retrieved 29 December 2012.
  162. Bradsher, Keith (28 December 2012). "China Toughens Its Restrictions on Use of the Internet" [archive]. New York Times.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  163. King, Gary; Pan, Jennifer; Roberts, Margaret E. (May 2013). "How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Expression" [archive] (PDF). American Political Science Review. 107: 326–343. doi:10.1017/S0003055413000014 [archive]. Retrieved 6 March 2015. Our central theoretical finding is that, contrary to much research and commentary, the purpose of the censorship program is not to suppress criticism of the state or the Communist Party.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  164. "Annual Worldwide Press Freedom Index – 2005" [archive]. Reporters Without Borders. 30 April 2009. Archived from the original [archive] on 19 April 2008. Retrieved 14 July 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  165. "World Press Freedom Index 2014" [archive]. Reporters Without Borders. Archived from the original [archive] on 14 February 2014. Retrieved 10 March 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  166. 166.0 166.1 Wingfield, Rupert (7 March 2006). "China's rural millions left behind" [archive]. BBC. Retrieved 14 July 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  167. 167.0 167.1 Luard, Tim (10 November 2005). "China rethinks peasant apartheid" [archive]. BBC. Retrieved 14 July 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  168. Ni, Ching-Ching (30 December 2005). "China to Abolish Contentious Agricultural Levy" [archive]. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 27 April 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  169. "China ends school fees for 150m" [archive]. BBC. 13 December 2006. Retrieved 27 April 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  170. Didi Tang (9 January 2014). "Forced abortion highlights abuses in China policy" [archive]. Associated Press.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  171. 171.0 171.1 "China bans religious activities in Xinjiang" [archive]. Financial Times. 2 August 2012. Retrieved 28 August 2012.
  172. Fan, Maureen; Cha, Ariana Eunjung (24 December 2008). "China's Capital Cases Still Secret, Arbitrary" [archive]. The Washington Post. Retrieved 16 August 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  173. "Amnesty sees hope in China on death penalty" [archive]. Yahoo news. 27 March 2012. Retrieved 31 May 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  174. Seth Faison, "In Beijing: A Roar of Silent Protestors" [archive], New York Times, 27 April 1999
  175. 175.0 175.1 Amnesty International (Dec 2013). Changing the soup but not the medicine: Abolishing re-education through labor in China [archive] (PDF). London,UK.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  176. Spiegel, Mickey (2002). Dangerous Meditation: China's Campaign Against Falungong [archive]. Human Rights Watch. ISBN 1-56432-269-6.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  177. "China 'moves two million Tibetans'" [archive]. BBC. 27 June 2013. Retrieved 27 June 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  178. "Fresh unrest hits China's Xinjiang" [archive]. BBC. 29 June 2013. Retrieved 29 June 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  179. 179.0 179.1 "China's Progress in Human Rights in 2004" [archive]. Gov.cn. July 2005. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
  180. "China seeks to improve workplace safety" [archive]. USA Today. 30 January 2008. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
  181. "China's reform and opening-up promotes human rights, says premier" [archive]. Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States. 11 December 2003. Retrieved 28 April 2006.
  182. "Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao talks reform, but most countrymen never get to hear what he says" [archive]. Washington Post. 13 October 2010. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
  183. "Service providers wanted" [archive]. Development and Cooperation. 2 August 2012. Retrieved 11 September 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  184. Hsu, Jennifer; Hasmath, Reza, eds. (2013). The Chinese Corporatist State: Adaption, Survival and Resistance [archive]. Routledge. p. 124. ISBN 9780415640725.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  185. "The new generals in charge of China's guns" [archive]. BBC. 14 November 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  186. 186.0 186.1 "Mar. 2014: Deciphering China's latest defence budget figures" [archive]. SIPRI. March 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  187. Annual Report To Congress – Military Power of the People's Republic of China 2009 (PDF) [archive]. Defenselink.mil. Retrieved 27 November 2011.
  188. Nolt, James H. Analysis: The China-Taiwan military balance [archive]. Asia Times. 1999. Retrieved 15 April 2006.
  189. "Military and Security Developments Involving the People's Republic of China 2013" [archive] (PDF). US Secretary of Defense. 2013. Retrieved 25 June 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  190. Andrew, Martin (18 August 2005). "THE DRAGON BREATHES FIRE: CHINESE POWER PROJECTION" [archive]. AsianResearch.org. Retrieved 26 June 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  191. 191.0 191.1 "IN FOCUS: Long march ahead for Chinese naval airpower" [archive]. Flightglobal.com. 26 November 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  192. "China's first aircraft carrier completes sea trial" [archive]. Xinhua News Agency. 15 August 2011. Retrieved 15 August 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  193. "China: Aircraft Carrier Now in Service" [archive]. The Wall Street Journal. 25 September 2012. Retrieved 26 September 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  194. "China unveils fleet of submarines" [archive]. The Guardian. 22 April 2009. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
  195. "India, Japan join hands to break China's 'string of pearls'" [archive]. Times of India. 30 May 2013. Archived from the original [archive] on 5 December 2016. Retrieved 7 July 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  196. "J-10" [archive]. SinoDefence.com. 28 March 2009. Retrieved 27 April 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  197. "Inside China's Secret Arsenal" [archive]. Popular Science. 20 December 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  198. "Early Eclipse: F-35 JSF Prospects in the Age of Chinese Stealth." [archive] China-Defense. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  199. "Chengdu J-20 – China's 5th Generation Fighter." [archive] Defense-Update.com. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  200. Washington Journal. (12 August 2015) "U.S. Military Approach toward China". Mark Perry, Politico writer, interview by Steve Scanlan, host. C-Span. Retrieved 12 August 2015. C-Span website [archive]
  201. Al Jazeera America Wire Service. (11 May 2015) Japan moves to boost role of military. Retrieved 12 August 2015. Al Jazerra America website [archive]
  202. Ground Forces [archive]. SinoDefence.com. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
  203. Surface-to-air Missile System [archive]. SinoDefence.com. 2006. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
  204. "HQ-19 (S-400) (China)". Jane's Weapons: Strategic. IHS. 23 December 2008.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  205. "China plays down fears after satellite shot down" [archive]. Agence France-Presse via ChannelNewsAsia. 20 January 2007. Retrieved 11 July 2013.
  206. "Chinese Navy Tests Land Attack Cruise Missiles: Implications for Asia-Pacific" [archive]. New Pacific Institute. 25 July 2012. Retrieved 1 October 2012.
  207. "China expanding its nuclear stockpile" [archive]. The Washington Times. 25 August 2011. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
  208. "The United States leads upward trend in arms exports, Asian and Gulf states arms imports up, says SIPRI" [archive]. www.sipri.org. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI). Retrieved 18 March 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  209. "In Our Time: Negative Numbers" [archive]. BBC. Retrieved 19 June 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  210. Struik, Dirk J. (1987). A Concise History of Mathematics. New York: Dover Publications. p.32–33. "In these matrices we find negative numbers, which appear here for the first time in history."
  211. Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology [archive]. 179. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 1996. pp. 137–138.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  212. Frank, Andre (2001). "Review of The Great Divergence" [archive]. Journal of Asian Studies. Cambridge University Press. 60 (1): 180–182. doi:10.2307/2659525 [archive].<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  213. Yu, Q. Y. (1999). The Implementation of China's Science and Technology Policy [archive]. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 2. ISBN 9781567203325.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  214. Vogel, Ezra F. (2011). Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China [archive]. Harvard University Press. p. 129. ISBN 9780674055445.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  215. DeGlopper, Donald D. (1987). "Soviet Influence in the 1950s". China: a country study [archive]. Library of Congress.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  216. 216.0 216.1 "R&D share for basic research in China dwindles" [archive]. Chemistry World.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  217. 217.0 217.1 "A Peek Into the 'Black Box' of Where China's Hefty R&D Budget Goes" [archive]. Bloomberg. 1 October 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2017.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  218. Kang, David; Segal, Adam (March 2006). "The Siren Song of Technonationalism" [archive]. Far Eastern Economic Review. Archived from the original [archive] on 10 March 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2013. Cite uses deprecated parameter |deadurl= (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  219. 219.0 219.1 "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1957" [archive]. Nobel Media AB. Retrieved 26 July 2014.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  220. "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1998" [archive]. Retrieved 6 December 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  221. "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2009" [archive]. Retrieved 6 December 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  222. "Yuan T. Lee – Biographical" [archive]. Retrieved 6 December 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  223. "Nobel Prize announcement" [archive] (PDF). NobelPrize.org. Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet. Retrieved 5 October 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  224. "Desperately seeking math and science majors" [archive] CNN. 29 July 2009. Retrieved 9 April 2012.
  225. "China publishes the second most scientific papers in international journals in 2010: report" [archive]. Xinhua. 2 December 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
  226. "Who's afraid of Huawei?" [archive]. The Economist. 4 August 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  227. "Shares in China's Lenovo rise on profit surge" [archive]. New Straits Times. 17 August 2012. Archived from the original [archive] on 17 August 2012. Cite uses deprecated parameter |dead-url= (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  228. "Lenovo ousts HP as world's top PC maker, says Gartner" [archive]. BBC. 11 October 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  229. "China retakes supercomputer crown" [archive]. BBC. 17 June 2013. Retrieved 18 June 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  230. Williams, Christopher (12 November 2012). "'Titan' supercomputer is world's most powerful" [archive]. The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 13 November 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  231. "Robots to boost China's economy" [archive]. People's Daily. 6 January 2013. Retrieved 29 January 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  232. Axe, David (16 April 2012). "China Now Tops U.S. in Space Launches" [archive]. Wired. Retrieved 24 October 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  233. David Eimer, "China's huge leap forward into space threatens US ascendancy over heavens" [archive]. Daily Telegraph. 5 November 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2013.
  234. Long, Wei (25 April 2000). "China Celebrates 30th Anniversary Of First Satellite Launch" [archive]. Space daily.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  235. "Rocket launches Chinese space lab" [archive]. BBC. 29 September 2011. Retrieved 20 May 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  236. Rincon, Paul (14 December 2013). "China lands Jade Rabbit robot rover on Moon" [archive]. BBC News. Retrieved 26 July 2014.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  237. "Communiqué of the National Bureau of Statistics of People's Republic of China on Major Figures of the 2010 Population Census[1] (No. 1)" [archive]. National Bureau of Statistics of China. Retrieved 31 May 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  238. "POPULATION GROWTH RATE" [archive]. CIA. Retrieved 29 September 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  239. "China´s 2013 urban unemployment rate at 4.1 pct CCTV News – CNTV English" [archive]. 27 December 2013. Retrieved 12 March 2014.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  240. "China's 2013 urban unemployment rate at 4.1%" [archive]. Business Standard. 24 January 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2014.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  241. "The New England Journal of Medicine, September 2005" [archive]. New England Journal of Medicine. 353: 1171–1176. doi:10.1056/NEJMhpr051833 [archive]. Retrieved 14 July 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  242. "China formalizes easing of one-child policy" [archive]. USA Today. 28 December 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  243. "Top legislature amends law to allow all couples to have two children" [archive]. Xinhua News Agency. 27 December 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  244. "The most surprising demographic crisis" [archive]. The Economist. 5 May 2011. Retrieved 1 November 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  245. Parry, Simon (9 January 2005). "Shortage of girls forces China to criminalize selective abortion" [archive]. The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 22 October 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  246. "Chinese facing shortage of wives" [archive]. BBC News. 12 January 2007. Retrieved 23 March 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  247. 247.0 247.1 247.2 "Chinese mainland gender ratios most balanced since 1950s: census data" [archive]. Xinhua. 28 April 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2011.
  248. "The odds that you will give birth to a boy or girl depend on where in the world you live" [archive]. Pew Research Center. 24 September 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  249. 249.0 249.1 249.2 "Communiqué of the National Bureau of Statistics of People's Republic of China on Major Figures of the 2010 Population Census (No. 1)" [archive]. National Bureau of Statistics of China. 28 April 2011. Archived from the original [archive] on 15 January 2013. Retrieved 14 June 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  250. Lilly, Amanda (7 July 2009). "A Guide to China's Ethnic Groups" [archive]. Washington Post.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  251. China's Geography: Globalization and the Dynamics of Political, Economic, and Social Change [archive]. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 2011. p. 102. ISBN 9780742567849.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  252. "Major Figures on Residents from Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan and Foreigners Covered by 2010 Population Census" [archive]. National Bureau of Statistics of China. 29 April 2011. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
  253. Languages of China [archive] – from Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International.
  254. Kaplan, Robert B.; Richard B. Baldauf (2008). Language Planning and Policy in Asia: Japan, Nepal, Taiwan and Chinese characters. Multilingual Matters. p. 42. ISBN 9781847690951.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  255. "Languages" [archive]. 2005. Gov.cn. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
  256. Rough Guide Phrasebook: Mandarin Chinese [archive]. Rough Guides. 2011. p. 19. ISBN 9781405388849.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  257. 257.0 257.1 257.2 "Preparing for China's urban billion" [archive]. McKinsey Global Institute. February 2009. pp. 6, 52. Retrieved 18 February 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  258. 258.0 258.1 "Urbanisation: Where China's future will happen" [archive]. The Economist. 19 April 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  259. "National Data" [archive]. data.stats.gov.cn. Retrieved 20 January 2016.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  260. "China Now Has More Than 260 Million Migrant Workers Whose Average Monthly Salary Is 2,290 Yuan ($374.09)" [archive]. International Business Times. 28 May 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  261. "China's urban explosion: A 21st century challenge" [archive]. CNN. 20 January 2012. Retrieved 18 February 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  262. "China's mega city: the country's existing mega cities" [archive]. The Telegraph. London. 24 January 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  263. "Overview" [archive]. Shenzhen Municipal E-government Resources Center. Retrieved 17 October 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  264. "Wu-Where? Opportunity Now In China's Inland Cities" [archive]. NPR. 7 August 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  265. "Tabulation of the 2010 Census of the People's Republic of China" [archive]. China Statistics Press.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  266. Francesco Sisci. "China's floating population a headache for census". The Straits Times. 22 September 2000.
  267. "Zhejiang University surpasses Tsinghua as top university of China" [archive]. China.org.cn. 17 June 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  268. "9-year Compulsory Education" [archive]. China.org.cn. Retrieved 11 December 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  269. "China eyes high school enrollment rate of 90%" [archive]. China Daily. 8 August 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  270. "China's higher education students exceed 30 million" [archive]. People's Daily. 11 March 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  271. "Vocational Education in China" [archive]. China.org.cn. Retrieved 11 December 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  272. "China pledges free 9-year education in rural west" [archive]. China Economic Net. 21 February 2006. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
  273. "In Education, China Takes the Lead" [archive]. New York Times. 16 January 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  274. "Chinese Education: The Truth Behind the Boasts" [archive]. Bloomberg Businessweek. 4 April 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  275. "School enrollment, secondary (% gross)" [archive]. World Bank. Retrieved 18 October 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  276. "FACTBOX: Education in China" [archive]. Xinhua. 7 August 2008.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  277. "Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above)" [archive]. World Bank. Retrieved 9 July 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  278. Plafker, Ted. "China's Long—but Uneven—March to Literacy" [archive]. International Herald Tribune. 12 February 2001. Retrieved 22 December 2012.
  279. "China Beats Out Finland for Top Marks in Education" [archive]. TIME. 2009. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
  280. "Ministry National Health and Family Planning Commission" [archive]. nhfpc.gov.cn. Archived from the original [archive] on 28 September 2014. Retrieved 6 September 2015. Cite uses deprecated parameter |dead-url= (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  281. "China's $124 Billion Health-Care Plan Aims to Boost Consumption" [archive]. Bloomberg L.P. 22 January 2009. Archived from the original [archive] on 29 October 2013. Cite uses deprecated parameter |dead-url= (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  282. "Great Progress, but More Is Needed" [archive]. New York Times. 1 November 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  283. Barboza, David (5 August 2012). "2,000 Arrested in China in Counterfeit Drug Crackdown" [archive]. New York Times. Retrieved 23 March 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  284. "Life expectancy at birth, total (years)" [archive]. World Bank. Retrieved 28 October 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  285. "Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births)" [archive]. World Bank. Retrieved 28 October 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  286. "Life expectancy increases by 44 years from 1949 in China's economic powerhouse Guangdong" [archive]. People's Daily. 4 October 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  287. "China's Infant Mortality Rate Down" [archive]. 11 September 2001. China.org.cn. Retrieved 3 May 2006.
  288. Stone, R. (2012). "Despite Gains, Malnutrition Among China's Rural Poor Sparks Concern". Science. 336 (6080): 402. doi:10.1126/science.336.6080.402 [archive]. PMID 22539691 [archive].<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  289. McGregor, Richard (2 July 2007). "750,000 a year killed by Chinese pollution" [archive]. Financial Times. Retrieved 22 July 2007.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  290. "China's Tobacco Industry Wields Huge Power" [archive] article by Didi Kirsten Tatlow in The New York Times 10 June 2010
  291. "Serving the people?" [archive]. 1999. Bruce Kennedy. CNN. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
  292. "Obesity Sickening China's Young Hearts" [archive]. 4 August 2000. People's Daily. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
  293. "China's latest SARS outbreak has been contained, but biosafety concerns remain" [archive]. 18 May 2004. World Health Organization. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
  294. Wong, Edward (1 April 2013). "Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Premature Deaths in China" [archive]. New York Times.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  295. Constitution of the People's Republic of China. Chapter 2, Article 36.
  296. "国家宗教事务局" [archive]. sara.gov.cn. Retrieved 30 August 2015.
  297. 297.0 297.1 Xinzhong Yao. Chinese Religion: A Contextual Approach. Bloomsbury Academic, 2011. pp. 9–11. ISBN 1847064760
  298. Miller, James (2006). Chinese Religions in Contemporary Societies [archive]. ABC-CLIO. p. 57. ISBN 9781851096268.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  299. Tam Wai Lun, "Local Religion in Contemporary China", in Xie, Zhibin (2006). Religious Diversity and Public Religion in China. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 9780754656487.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> p. 73 [archive]
  300. Steven F. Teiser. What is Popular Religion? [archive]. Part of: Living in the Chinese Cosmos, Asia for Educators, Columbia University. Extracts from: Stephen F. Teiser. The Spirits of Chinese Religion. In: Religions of China in Practice. Princeton University Press, 1996.
  301. 301.0 301.1 André Laliberté. Religion and the State in China: The Limits of Institutionalization. On: Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 40, 2, 3–15. 2011. ISSN 1868-4874 [archive] (online), ISSN 1868-1026 [archive] (print). p. 7, quote: «[...] while provincial leaders in Fujian nod to Taoism with their sponsorship of the Mazu Pilgrimage in Southern China, the leaders of Shanxi have gone further with their promotion of worship of the Yellow Emperor (黄帝, Huangdi).»
  302. Religions & Christianity in Today's China [archive] (China Zentrum). Vol. IV, 2014, No. 1. ISSN 2192-9289 [archive]. pp. 22–23.
  303. Barry Sautman. Myths of Descent, Racial Nationalism and Ethnic Minorities in the People's Republic of China. In: Frank Dikötter. The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Honolulu, University of Hawai'i Press, 1997, pp. 75–95. ISBN 9622094430. pp. 80–81
  304. "Gallup International Religiosity Index" [archive] (PDF). Washington Post. WIN-Gallup International. April 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  305. 305.0 305.1 Chinese Family Panel Studies's survey of 2012. Published in The World Religious Cultures issue 2014: 卢云峰:当代中国宗教状况报告——基于CFPS(2012)调查数据 [archive] Archived [archive] 9 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine.. p. 13, reporting the results of the Renmin University's Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) for the years 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2011, and their average.
  306. Fowler, Jeanine D. (2005). An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality [archive]. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 1845190866.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> pp. 200–201
  307. "Temple of Heaven: an Imperial Sacrificial Altar in Beijing" [archive]. UNESCO. Retrieved 17 July 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  308. China: Understanding Its Past. University of Hawaii Press. 1997. p. 29.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  309. "Historical and Contemporary Exam-driven Education Fever in China" [archive]. KEDI Journal of Educational Policy. 2 (1): 17–33. 2005. Archived from the original [archive] (PDF) on 14 March 2015. Cite uses deprecated parameter |deadurl= (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  310. "Tour Guidebook: Beijing" [archive]. China National Tourism Administration. Retrieved 14 July 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  311. "Why China is letting 'Django Unchained' slip through its censorship regime" [archive]. Quartz. 13 March 2013. Retrieved 12 July 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  312. ""China: Traditional arts". Library of Congress – Country Studies" [archive]. Lcweb2.loc.gov. Retrieved 1 November 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  313. "China: Cultural life: The arts" [archive]. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 1 November 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  314. ""China: Folk and Variety Arts". Library of Congress – Country Studies" [archive]. Lcweb2.loc.gov. Retrieved 1 November 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  315. "What is the world's favourite holiday destination?" [archive]. BBC. 4 August 2013. Retrieved 5 August 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  316. "Microsoft Word – UNWTO Barom07 2 en.doc" [archive] (PDF). UNWTO. 2010. Archived from the original [archive] (PDF) on 20 October 2010. Retrieved 14 May 2010.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  317. "China's Economy: What the Tourist Boom Tells Us" [archive]. TIME. 17 October 2012. Retrieved 18 October 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  318. "中国文学史概述" [archive]. jstvu.edu.cn. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
  319. "The Canonical Books of Confucianism – Canon of the Literati" [archive]. 14 November 2013. Retrieved 14 January 2014.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  320. "什么是四书五经" [archive]. 360doc.com. 6 June 2014. Retrieved 15 July 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  321. "李白杜甫优劣论" [archive]. 360doc.com. 18 April 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
  322. "史传文学与中国古代小说" [archive]. 明清小说研究. April 1997. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
  323. "第一章 中国古典小说的发展和明清小说的繁荣" [archive]. nbtvu.net.cn. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
  324. "金庸作品从流行穿越至经典" [archive]. 包头日报. 12 March 2014. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
  325. "四大名著在日、韩的传播与跨文化重构" [archive]. 东北师大学报:哲学社会科学版. June 2010. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
  326. "新文化运动中的胡适与鲁迅" [archive]. 中共杭州市委党校学报. April 2000. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
  327. "魔幻现实主义文学与"寻根"小说" [archive]. 文学评论. February 2006. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
  328. "莫言:寻根文学作家" [archive]. 东江时报. 12 October 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
  329. "鲁菜泰斗颜景祥" [archive]. 凤凰网山东. 16 September 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  330. "Eight Major Cuisines" [archive]. chinese.cn. 2 June 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  331. "【外国人最惊叫的烹饪技法】食材、刀工、火候、调料。" [archive]. 360doc.com. 15 November 2014. Retrieved 17 July 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  332. "中国美食成外国网友"噩梦" 鸡爪内脏鱼头不敢吃" [archive]. xinhuanet.com. 23 September 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  333. "中医强调"药疗不如食疗" 食疗有三大优势" [archive]. antpedia.com. 1 April 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2015.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  334. "中国居民豆类及豆制品的消费现状" [archive]. 中国食物与营养. January 2008. Retrieved 17 July 2015.
  335. "China's Hunger For Pork Will Impact The U.S. Meat Industry" [archive]. Forbes. 19 June 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  336. "清真菜对北京菜影响" [archive]. yqx.cc. 8 January 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2015.
  337. Historical Dictionary of Soccer [archive]. Scarecrow Press. 2011. p. 2.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  338. "Sport in Ancient China" [archive]. JUE LIU (刘珏) (The World of Chinese). 31 August 2013. Retrieved 28 June 2014.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  339. Thornton, E. W.; Sykes, K. S.; Tang, W. K. (2004). "Health benefits of Tai Chi exercise: Improved balance and blood pressure in middle-aged women". Health Promotion International. 19 (1): 33–38. doi:10.1093/heapro/dah105 [archive]. PMID 14976170 [archive].<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  340. "China health club market – Huge potential & challenges" [archive]. China Sports Business. 1 July 2011. Retrieved 31 July 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  341. "2014年6岁至69岁人群体育健身活动和体质状况抽测结果发布" [archive]. 温州日报. 7 August 2014. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
  342. Beech, Hannah (28 April 2003). "Yao Ming" [archive]. Time Magazine. Archived from the original [archive] on 5 July 2011. Retrieved 30 March 2007.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  343. "足球不给劲观众却不少 中超球市世界第9亚洲第1" [archive]. 搜狐体育. 14 July 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2015.
  344. "Chinese players dominate at Malaysia open chess championship" [archive]. TheStar.com. 2 September 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2011.
  345. "Bike-Maker Giant Says Fitness Lifestyle Boosting China Sales" [archive]. Bloomberg L.P. 17 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  346. Qinfa, Ye. "Sports History of China" [archive]. About.com. Retrieved 21 April 2006.
  347. "China targets more golds in 2012" [archive]. BBC Sport. 27 August 2008. Retrieved 27 November 2011.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  348. "Medal Count" [archive]. London2012.com. Retrieved 9 September 2012.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  349. "China dominates medals; U.S. falls short at Paralympics" [archive]. USA Today. 9 September 2012. Retrieved 19 June 2013.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>

Further reading[edit]

  • China Misperceived, S. Mosher


  • K.M.Panikkar. 1957: India and China: a study of cultural relations

External links[edit]

u-s-consulate-in-china-warns-americans-after-jihad-mass-murder-attack-in-kunming-railway-station [archive]
western-media-condemns-terrorist-attacks [archive]
Western media downplay jihad in China mass-murder attack : Jihad Watch [archive]
China: Buddhist monks training to defend against jihad terror attacks : Jihad Watch [archive]
Jihad Watch: Double standards for outrage: "What does China have that Denmark did not?" [archive]
robert-spencer-on-knus-denvers-peter-boyles-show-on-muslim-attacks-in-china [archive]
China: Xinjiang separatist forces carried out Kunming Railway Station attack : Jihad Watch [archive]